1. Describe all key aspects of research ethics that were reviewed in class.

• Before you do any experiment, you are required to get approval from your local ethics committees • Human + animal research have separate committees

Ethical guidelines • Informed consent • Subject is given all information relevant to participation, including the possibility of harm (e.g. reactions to drugs) • Freedom to leave at any point • People often do; attrition (subject loss) is high in human studies (~20 – 50% in some cases) • Protection of participants • No unnecessary harm or distress • Confidentiality • Participant’s data is kept anonymous

Ethical guidelines • Debriefing • Research hypotheses and procedure are explained in full • Any deception is revealed + explained

2. Why do we use statistical tests?

In Psychology, we use statistical tests • Statistics is about quantifying uncertainty (i.e. how likely it is our result is due to chance) • We have different tests (e.g. t-test, ANOVA) we use in specific situations • No test is perfect!

3. What is a p value? What is a p threshold value?

a hypothesis test that is used to determine the significance of the results from a study. It is the probability that the results from an experiment or study are due to chance and not the experimental conditions

- we set the error margins in advance

- prior to the analysis, we decide what p value we are willing to accept (a p threshold)

- we compare our test p value to the threshold value

- when the p value from our test is below threshold, we say that the difference between the groups is 'statistically significant'

4. Explain the terms statistical significance and effect size. 

When the p value from out test is below threshold, we say that the difference between the groups is <statistically significant>

-- in general, the larger the sample, the greater the statistical power

the strength of the difference between treatment groups, or the magnitude of the treatment effect, is expressed in the form of effect size

- some treatments are very strong (high effect size) whereas others are weak (low effect size)

- effect size is relatively unaltered by sample size (you can increase your sample size all you want, but the effect size generally does not change much)

5. What is a replication? How consistent is replication in science? What factors might predict the success of a replication effort?

replication is defined as reproducing a study to see if you get the same results.

The replication crisis • Many causes • bad statistical procedures (e.g. p-hacking, low sample size) • poor measurement practices1 • experimental designs • publication bias (negative results not published) • Unrepeatable effects should not inform major decisions • Unfortunately, many people cite them and discuss them2 • Tough to resolve this situation, some fixes put forward • Pre-registration and open science recommended

6. Describe all the main parts of a neuron and their general purpose. 

Neurons are termed excitable cells because they conduct electrochemical signals

Synapse: a site where there is a transmission of electrochemical impulses between two neurons (A+B)

Neurons have a membrane that is selectively permeable to substances (ions + proteins) which carry an electric charge

There is a separation of charge and an electric potential across the membrane

Flow of charged ions across the membrane is regulated by channels

Channel opening can be triggered by different events

When channels open: ions will flow, Vm will change + electrochemical impulses can be generated

Neurotransmitters released by one cell (A) bind to receptors on another cell (B; like a key in a lock). This chemical signaling (neurotransmission) is the major way neurons communicate

Glutamate released by one cell (A) binds to AMPA receptors on another cell (B). This allows Na+ ions to enter the cell and causes an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP).

need input, when enough input chemical impulses travels down the axon then when it reaches the end (axon terminal), going to synapse and in turn affect the electrical threshold of the cell and when the voltage reaches threshold - going to fire down the axon and releases

7. Describe agonists and antagonists. 

An agonist is a compound that binds to a receptor and 

produces a response (e.g. glutamate is an agonist of 

glutamate receptors) 

• An antagonist is a compound that binds to a receptor 

but does not produce a response

8. Describe lateralization of function in the brain. Are people really ‘left-brain dominant’ or ‘right-brain dominant’? 

Left + right hemispheres control 

the opposite (contralateral) 

sides of the body

• In certain cases, the left + right 

may differ functionally

• Language often lateralized left 

(~70-90% of people)

• Otherwise, the idea of ‘left-

brain’ and ‘right-brain’ 

dominance is an exaggeration

9. What are the four lobes of the brain? What are the general functions of each?

1) Frontal Lobe

• The ‘seat of executive function’ in the brain

• Involved in the planning, organization, initiation and 

inhibition of behavior1

• Central to initiating voluntary muscle movement (as it 

contains the primary motor cortex)

• Regulates social behavior, stress, memory and even 

decision-making

2) The Parietal lobe

• Involved in language, spatial relationships and tactile 

perception (including touch, pain and proprioception)

• Sensation will be discussed in L06

• Contains the somatosensory cortex, where various 

regions of the body are represented

• Lesion might impair the ability to feel/recognize tactile 

stimuli (tactile agnosia), do math (dyscalculia), speak 

(dysphasia) and read (dyslexia)

3) The Temporal lobe

• Associated with many key functions, including hearing, 

language, multi-modal integration and memory*

• Primary auditory areas are found here

• Discussed in more detail in L04: Sensation

• May be associated with much more complex functions 

such as creativity and religiosity1-3

• Participates in recognition of faces and objects4

4. Occipital lobe (L4): visual processing area of brain , distance and depth perception, colour determination, memory formation

10. Be able to describe how damage to specific brain areas causes specific behavioral impairments. 

Frontal cortex lesion - The injury was associated with pronounced behavioral changes, such as increased impulsivity and inappropriate social behavior

The orbitofrontal cortex - Positioned near the orbital bone, around the eyes 

• Commonly injured 

• Damage is associated with deficits in social behavior, impulse control, taste and smell

The Parietal lobe - 

• Lesion might impair the ability to feel/recognize tactile stimuli (tactile agnosia), do math (dyscalculia), speak (dysphasia) and read (dyslexia)

Occipital: inability to visually process anything, identity colours and hallucinations - vision loss or total blindness

11. Describe the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, cingulate gyrus and basal ganglia.

Limbic System • Amygdala • Hypothalamus • Hippocampus • Cingulate gyrus • Basal ganglia (sometimes included)

Amygdala • Involved in emotional processing (fear, anxiety and anger but also positive emotions) + social behavior • Lesion tends to affect fear and anxiety • Changes in amygdala structure in stress, depression, autism, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder1-3

One of the main targets of the amygdala is the hypothalamus. Many effects of amygdala activation require downstream hypothalamic activation. 

What does the hypothalamus do? • Important drive center for regulatory behavior • Governs the drive for aggressive, feeding, fearful and sexual behaviors • Also a ‘homeostatic regulator’ that controls fluid balance, thermoregulation and circadian rhythm • Participates in the regulation of stress responses via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

Damage to the hypothalamus (lateral + ventromedial subregions) disrupts appetite regulation and energy metabolism, resulting in weight changes.

Hippocampus: Function • Centrally involved in memory consolidation, spatiallyguided behavior and emotion (particularly anxiety) • Termed ‘the gateway to declarative memory’ • Different roles of the hippocampus in memory have been proposed over time

Cingulate gyrus • Plays a role in many behaviors, including social interaction1 , pain2-3 , emotion4 and learning/memory • Cingulate lesions can have profound effects on social behavior in humans and animals

Basal ganglia • Caudate + Putamen (together = dorsal striatum) as well as Globus Pallidus • Important for Movement • Nucleus Accumbens and other structures (= ventral striatum) • Role in reinforcement learning + habit formation (relevant to addiction)

12. Describe the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and its regulation. 

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a communication system between three organs. It's crucial for your body's stress management. These endocrine system organs create a feedback loop of hormones to enact and regulate your body's stress reaction.

Hypothalamus activates stress response which signals to pituitary gland that something will happen which will release hormones from your adrenal gland (cortisol) put you into flight or fight mode

- negative feedback loop - blocks hypothalamus from sending signals and stops pituitary gland from releasing hormones because don't want too much

13. Contrast declarative and non-declarative memory.

Declarative memory allows us to consciously recollect events and facts. It is generally indexed by our ability to explicitly recall or recognize those events or facts. Declarative memory has to do with the storage of facts and events we have personally experienced. Recalling information from declarative memory involves some degree of conscious effort, as information must be consciously brought to mind and “declared.”

Nondeclarative memory, in contrast, is accessed without consciousness or implicitly through performance rather than recollection.

14. Describe the components of the peripheral nervous system.

The Somatic Nervous System has the brain’s Cranial nerves (12) and the Spinal (peripheral) nerves (31)

The Autonomic Nervous System • Involuntary effects • Many structures receive input from both systems • The effects of SNS + ANS are different

15. Describe the components of the autonomic nervous system and the concept of autonomic nervous system dominance. 

Sympathetic Dominance is a state where the Sympathetic side of the autonomic nervous system is over dominant and controls your immediate thoughts, actions and reactions. This state is often referred to as 'Fight or Flight' or what you may be experiencing when you feel 'stressed'.