2024 Fall Humanities Exams

Poetic Apostrophe: a literary device in which the speaker addresses either an absent person or a non-human object, idea, or being

3 forms of irony: Verbal irony is when a person says one thing but means the opposite;

Situational irony is when the opposite of what is expected happens; and

Dramatic irony is when the audience knows something that characters do not

Parallelism: using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance

Paradox: a complete statement or scenario that seems self-contradictory but reveals a thought-provoking truth upon further examination (e.g., “The only constant in life is change”)

Muse: a person who is a source of artistic inspiration, based off  the muses of the arts in ancient greek mythology

Shang China:Towns loosely controlled by king with large army

Agriculture based

Powerful, Tang overthrew the Xia gov

Controlled bronze production (made strong armor + weapons)

Mandate of Heaven: given by Heaven to the ruling family; when there’s trouble in China, the Mandate of Heaven is given to a new dynasty (dynastic cycle)

Had horse-drawn chariots - used in administration/conquering. new technology

Polytheistic, daily sacrifices (used prisoners), no organized priesthood

Pictograph language

Made a lot of art + music

Zhou China: Decentralized monarchy supported by Mandate of Heaven; autonomous provinces overseen by bureaucracy

Longest + golden age

irrigation systems, plows, crossbow, iron sword, + cavalry

2 main rivers (Chiang Jiang + Huang He -> Yellow Sea) + protected from invasion by the Gobi Desert + Himalayas

Reliable climate + domesticated chickens and pigs + farmed rice, soy beans, silk, etc.

Warring states is Zhou v. Shang

Qin China: Founded by Emperor Shihuangdi, who forcibly reunited China through a military campaign and established a strong, central state through brutal means; First “emperor” of a unified China

Scholars who are opposed to Shihuangdi's government are executed, and their books are burnt

Aristocrats forcibly moved to the capital, if they resist

Hundreds of laborers recruited to construct the Great Wall of China: served to keep out northern barbarians and erect a monumental mausoleum for the emperor as a resting place.

Legalism is the governing philosophy

Imposed uniform system of weights, measures and currency, standardized axle form for carts, written Chinese language evolves

However, since the emperors used brutality and harsh torture to enforce rules, resistance grew from the public, and they fell from power

Mandate Of Heaven concept: used to solidify power ( mentioned earlier )

When Shi Huangdi died, he was buried with terracotta warriors to ensure his safe ascension to heaven

Han China: Centralization retained; Confucianism based religion

Actively assimilated non-Chinese persons to their community through intermarriage ( in Rome, they granted assimilation by granting citizenship)

Saw the spread of Buddhism in their empire ( gained little support, but grew prominent)

Emperor Wudi: seventh and longest-reigning Han emperor of China; established an imperial academy to train officials for an emerging bureaucracy ( curriculum based on COnfucianism)

Civil service examinations: long examinations taken by members of the imperial academy to gain access to higher ranks of bureaucrats ( trained officials became bureaucrats); corresponded with the emergence of a bureaucracy); integrated many Chinese persons ( lasts until 20th century): persons achieved great fame and fortune if they passed the hard exam

Large scale ironworking increased pollution; intense agricultural practices cause soil erosion; Hwang-Ho RIver turns into the Yellow RIver (frequently flooded, and carried a lot of silt)

Landowning Class refused to pay taxes, peasants become poor, authority loses power → Yellow Turban Rebellion in China

Nomadic tribes threat from the North and barbaric lands; drought and climate change;

China still reassembled as a centralized government (ethnic homogeneity, advanced agriculture and metallurgy, secular Confucian ideology

Byzantine Empire: First Crusade led to destruction in Byzantine

Center of trade and very diverse

Sits between 2 trading seas

Silk used for clothing

Silk used for diplomacy and payment from the state

Mohenjo-Daro: south of Indus river

Raja: local chiefs stronger than the king

Caste System

Dravidians (indigenous indians) and Aryans (nomadic horseback warriors)

Harappa: private toilets that went into a sewage system (urban planning) 

Lawbook of Manu: religious text on moral behavior, class relationships, and gender roles  (ex. women to be respected, but subjugated to men) 

North of Indus River

Social hierarchy b/c different home sizes

Caste system

Dravidians (indigenous indians) and Aryans (nomadic horseback warriors)

Raja: local chiefs stronger than the king

Maurya: Classical Empire

First and largest of India’s “experiments with a political system”; stretched all across India except for the southern tip ( Tamil Country, ruled by the Cholas, Cheras, and the Pandyas)

Heavily influenced by Persia and Greece ( during the Hellenistic period)

Civilian bureaucracy with extensive military force, and a bevy of imperial spies

Political Philosophy: Arthashastra (Science of Worldly Wealth): what should the king do to preserve his state and the common good

Activities were financed by taxes (trade, land, animals)

Ashoka: Greatest of the Mauryan emperors, who left records of his activities and edicts on stone walls; enlightened ruler, who ruled morally after his conversion to Buddhism ( ruled with teachings of Hinduism and Buddhism)

After his death, these policies did not hold the empire, so it fell apart

Umayyad Caliphate: played a pivotal role in spreading Islam through military conquests that expanded their territory into North Africa and Spain. This expansion not only brought new regions under Islamic rule but also facilitated cultural exchanges between various societies

First muslim dynasty after the first four caliphs

Capital is Damascus

Overthrown by Abbasids

Abbasid Caliphate: Descendants of the Prophet Muhammad's uncle, al-Abbas, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate and ruled an Islamic empire from their capital in Baghdad from 750 to 1258

Destroyed by Mongol Invasion

Promoted the Islamic golden age (arts, technology)

Alexander the Great’s Greece: Hellenistic art

Destroyed the Persian Empire and Egypt

Great general

Wasn’t good at empire building

Tore things down, not build them up

After he died, his empire broke into 3 called the Hellenistic Kingdoms (Antigonus in Greece and Macedonia, Ptolemaic in Egypt, and Seleucid in Persia)

Great at being dead (everyone loved him and was a military model)

Introduced the Persian idea of Absolute monarchy to the Greco-Roman world

Built major cities named after himself and his horse (Alexandria)

Impacted culture (gave the common language, Greek) and created a more connected world

Axum: A lot of agriculture w/ plows (other areas relied on the hoe)

Traded in Red Sea and Indian Ocean

Taxed all of the trade which made them a lot of money

Rose due to long-distance trade

Was introduced to Christianity through trade w/ Egypt

Coins had their gods at first and was later changed to the Christian cross

Declined due to soil exhaustion and deforestation created by intensive farming

Rise of Islam changed trade, less tax = less revenue

Moved to Ethiopia and remained Christian

Zimbabwe: part of a large and wealthy global trading network. Archaeologists have found pottery from China and Persia, as well as Arab coins in the ruins there. The elite of the Zimbabwe Empire controlled trade up and down the east African coast.

Shona/Bantu trading empire

Capital is ‘great zimbabwe’ with large circular wall and tower

Stone houses

Neolithic Revolution: “Neolithic (New Stone Age) Revolution” and “Agricultural Revolution” both refer to the creation of agriculture and taming and breeding animals

Provided the foundation for growing populations, settled villages, animal-borne diseases, horse-drawn chariot warfare, cities, states, empires, civilizations, writing, literature, etc

Pastoral society - group of people who live a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle while also herding and caring for agricultural animals

Advantages of farming and herding:

Controlled food supply

Food surplus (created cities and the specialization of labor (certain jobs with certain skills)

Practiced everywhere

Animals provide meat and milk

Shelter: wool and leather

Disadvantages:

Growing population + changing environment

Hard + use slaves

Move a lot for new grass

Not a lot of animals that can be domesticated - only occurred in some areas

Hebrews: Jewish people

Religion persecuted

Non-proselytizing

Jesus is not the messiah

Covenant/ circumcision

Stoicism: self control and how to overcome destructive emotions

Epicureanism: pleasure is the highest good; avoiding pain is the biggest pleasure

Cuneiform: Sumerian language

Marks into wet clay tablets for record keeping

Romanization: the process through which Roman culture influenced local populations in the empire, leading to a blend of Roman and local traditions

Justinian Christianity: Emperor Justinian took old Roman laws and condensed them into 4000

Called Justinian’s Code

Justinian built churches and monuments in Constantinople as well

Plato: Plato - saw how they treated Socrates, believed that only real love were for intellectual equals, created Plato’s Republic, he believed that philosophers should be kings, believes in the World of the Forms: there is a best ideal form of things (such as love, beauty, etc.)

Plato’s virtuous life: leading a morally good & fulfilling life where you do what is right and avoid what is wrong

Aristotle: belief in 1 world, starts his own school, believes in the Doctrine of Mean (excess and deficiency), virtue - habit in acting with reason and being able to act in the means between extremes, believes in the Unmoved Mover

Sundiata: Sundiata Keita (died 1255) was a West African monarch who founded the western Sudanese empire of Mali

Epic story about creating community and forming alliances, both on a small scale (through marriage and having children), and on the broad scale of creating a vast empire

Rumi Poetry: embodies key Sufi themes such as divine love, the longing for God, and the journey of the soul towards unity with the divine. His use of metaphor and imagery illustrates the deep emotional experience associated with spiritual awakening

Hagia Sophia: Byzantine church turned into a mosque after the fall of constantinople

Gregorian Chants: Sung in Latin or Greek

Monophonic (everyone sings the same melodic line, no accompaniment)

Without a regular rhythm

Hindu Temples: Can be a structure on the side of the road, or huge

Dwelling place for the god

A god is like a king and have sculptures of other deities

Have a place of offering, flowers, and notecards

Economic need (have spaces to sell things for the temples (lots of people to buy))

Interior isn’t designed to have a lot of people (come in in small groups through a hallway)

Main deity is covered in garlands

Usually a social hub

Tower is brightly painted

Gateways

Shaped in the way of the home

Pillars of Ashoka: a series of monolithic columns dispersed throughout the Indian subcontinent, inscribed with edicts by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka the Great (empire falls apart after he dies)

Buddhist Statues: This is the traditional representation of the Shakyamuni Buddha or the historical Buddha. 

Shows the moment of Buddha’s enlightenment = symbol of enlightenment

Can be bonkers massive or cutesy small

Buddhist Stupas: monuments containing relics of the Buddha + used for meditation

Byzantine/ Islamic Mosaics: Byzantine-- intricate patterns, rich colors, religious themes depicting important figures in Christianity; made with small pieces of glass, stone, ceramic, or other material, which are called tesserae

Islamic-- gold, complex geometric patterns, monochromatic/ large monochromatic center, never involve figures or people

Dome: customarily hemispherical, although octagonal and segmented shapes are also known, and they developed in form, use, and structure over the centuries 

Early examples rested directly on the rotunda walls of round rooms and featured a central oculus for ventilation and light (hole in middle of dome)

Symbol of heavenly connection

Early southeast asian art: deep connection to nature, things etched into temples/ protruding from walls, use of gods/legendary/supernatural subjects

Flashcard 1

Question: What are the major Chinese dynasties and their founding contexts?

Answer:

Shang (1600 BCE): Earliest known Chinese dynasty.

Zhou: Introduced the Mandate of Heaven, legitimizing the emperor’s rule.

Qin (221 BCE): Unified China under Qin Shi Huang with Legalism.

Han (206 BCE - 220 CE): Expanded borders and made Confucianism the state philosophy.

Flashcard 2

Question: What were the key geographic features of early China?

Answer:

Yellow River Valley: Core of early Chinese civilization, providing fertile soil for agriculture.

Great Wall of China: Built during the Qin dynasty to protect from northern invasions.

Flashcard 3

Question: How was China politically organized during these dynasties?

Answer:

Early Dynasties: Centralized, absolute monarchy with the Emperor holding supreme power.

Han Dynasty: Introduced a bureaucratic system based on Confucian principles.

Flashcard 4

Question: What were the main philosophical and religious ideas in early China?

Answer:

Ancestor Worship: Early Chinese religious practice.

Confucianism: Focused on filial piety and social harmony.

Daoism: Emphasized spontaneity, contrasting with formal authority.

Legalism: Promoted strict law enforcement and centralized control.

Flashcard 5

Question: What was the social structure in ancient China?

Answer:

Hierarchy: Emperor at the top, followed by nobles, scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants.

Women's roles: Primarily domestic, though some held power (e.g., Empress Wu).

Flashcard 6

Question: What led to the decline of the Chinese dynasties?

Answer:

Qin Dynasty: Fell due to harsh rule and rebellion.

Han Dynasty: Weakened by corruption, land distribution issues, and internal strife.

Flashcard 7

Question: What were the key features of the Greek city-states Athens and Sparta?

Answer:

Athens: Known for democracy and philosophical contributions.

Sparta: Militaristic society with an oligarchic political system.

Flashcard 8

Question: What was the geography of Athens and Sparta?

Answer:

Athens: Coastal city-state with a focus on trade and philosophy.

Sparta: Mountainous, isolated, and military-focused.

Flashcard 9

Question: What were the political systems in Athens and Sparta?

Answer:

Athens: Democracy, citizens voted on laws.

Sparta: Oligarchy, military-focused leadership.

Flashcard 10

Question: How were society and religion organized in Athens and Sparta?

Answer:

Athens: Polytheistic, with prominent philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Society divided into free citizens, metics, and slaves.

Sparta: Polytheistic, with a focus on military training. Helots (serfs) were at the bottom, warriors at the top.

Flashcard 11

Question: What led to the decline of Athens and Sparta?

Answer:

Sparta: Declined due to internal strife and defeats.

Athens: Weakened after the Peloponnesian War and the rise of Macedon.

Flashcard 12

Question: What was the historical context of Alexander the Great's empire?

Answer:

Alexander, son of King Philip II of Macedon, built an empire through military conquest in the 4th century BCE.

Flashcard 13

Question: What was the geographical extent of Alexander’s empire?

Answer:

The empire stretched from Greece to Egypt and India, creating a vast multicultural realm.

Flashcard 14

Question: What was the political structure of Alexander the Great’s empire?

Answer:

Centralized under Alexander but fragmented after his death, divided by his generals.

Flashcard 15

Question: What were the religious and philosophical ideas in Alexander the Great's empire?

Answer:

Greek culture and philosophy spread, but local religions also persisted

Flashcard 16

Question: What was the social structure in Alexander’s empire?

Answer:

Hierarchical with Alexander at the top, followed by nobles, soldiers, and local populations.

Flashcard 17

Question: What led to the decline of Alexander the Great’s empire?

Answer:

After his death, infighting among generals fragmented the empire into Hellenistic kingdoms.

Flashcard 18

Question: What were the key features of the Roman Republic and Empire?

Answer:

Roman Republic (509 BCE): Elected officials, tensions, corruption, and civil wars.

Roman Empire (27 BCE): Ruled by emperors, Pax Romana brought peace and prosperity.

Flashcard 19

Question: What geographic features were important for the Roman Empire?

Answer:

Located on the Italian Peninsula with mountains like the Alps for protection.

Access to seas for trade and military expansion.

Flashcard 20

Question: What was the political organization of Rome?

Answer:

Republic: Elected officials, but tensions led to the rise of dictators.

Empire: Centralized under emperors, starting with Augustus.

Flashcard 21

Question: What were the religious and philosophical ideas in Rome?

Answer:

Initially polytheistic, later adopted Christianity as the state religion.

Stoicism: Focused on emotional resilience and inner strength.

Flashcard 22

Question: What were the key intellectual and cultural contributions of Rome?

Answer:

Roman law, gladiatorial games, architecture (e.g., Colosseum), roads, and concrete.

Greek influence in art, literature, and science.

Flashcard 23

Question: What was the social structure of Rome?

Answer:

Hierarchical: Patricians (aristocrats), plebeians (commoners), and slaves.

Women had limited rights but more freedom than Greek women.

Flashcard 24

Question: What led to the fall of the Roman Empire?

Answer:

Internal corruption, economic decline, and invasions by barbarian groups. The empire split into the Eastern (Byzantine) and Western Roman Empires.

Flashcard 25

Question: What were the key features of the Byzantine Empire and Medieval Western Europe?

Answer:

Byzantine Empire: Founded by Emperor Constantine, centralized, with Christianity (Eastern Orthodox) shaping the region.

Medieval Western Europe: Feudalism, decentralized, and the rise of monarchies after the fall of Rome.

Flashcard 26

Question: What were the key geographic features of the Byzantine Empire and Medieval Europe?

Answer:

Byzantine Empire: Constantinople strategically located between Europe and Asia.

Medieval Europe: Decentralized, rural with castles and manorial systems.

Flashcard 27

Question: What were the political systems in the Byzantine Empire and Medieval Europe?

Answer:

Byzantine Empire: Ruled by emperors with central control.

Medieval Europe: Feudalism, with power decentralized to nobles.

Flashcard 28

Question: What were the religious ideas in the Byzantine Empire and Medieval Europe?

Answer:

Byzantine Empire: Eastern Orthodox Christianity.

Medieval Europe: Catholicism in the West.

Flashcard 29

Question: What was the social structure in Medieval Europe?

Answer:

Structured around feudal relationships with serfs at the bottom and kings and lords at the top.

Flashcard 30

Question: What led to the decline of the Byzantine Empire and Medieval Europe?

Answer:

Byzantine Empire: Fell in 1453 due to the Ottoman conquest.

Medieval Europe: Ended with the rise of centralized monarchies, the Black Death, and the Renaissance.

Mesopotamia

Q: Who were the founders of Mesopotamian civilization?

A: The Sumerians, around 3500 BCE.

Q: What geographic features were crucial for the development of Mesopotamia?

A: Mesopotamia was located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, providing fertile land but also prone to flooding.

Q: How was Mesopotamia politically organized during the Sumerian period?

A: Mesopotamian city-states were ruled by kings, each with their own military.

Q: What was Hammurabi’s Code?

A: A set of laws created by the Babylonian king Hammurabi that protected individual rights.

Q: What is the significance of the Epic of Gilgamesh in Mesopotamian culture?

A: It is one of the earliest works of literature and was written using the first writing system, cuneiform.

Q: What was the social structure in Mesopotamia like?

A: Society was hierarchical, with priests and kings at the top, followed by merchants, farmers, and slaves.

Q: Why did Mesopotamia decline?

A: The civilization fell due to invasions from the Persians and Macedonians, and agricultural challenges as the soil became infertile.

Egypt

Q: Who unified Egypt and when?

A: King Narmer unified Egypt around 3100 BCE.

Q: What geographical feature was essential to Egypt’s prosperity?

A: The Nile River, which provided fertile land and irrigation.

Q: How was Egypt politically organized?

A: Egypt was a centralized, theocratic monarchy with the pharaoh considered both king and god.

Q: What religious shift did Pharaoh Akhenaten attempt?

A: He promoted the worship of one god, Aten, but the old polytheistic religion was restored after his death.

Q: How did the Egyptians track time and seasons?

A: They developed a 365-day calendar to track the annual flooding of the Nile.

Q: What was the social hierarchy in Egypt like?

A: Egypt had a hierarchical society with the pharaoh at the top, followed by priests, scribes, and artisans.

Q: Why did Egypt decline?

A: Egypt faced invasions, internal strife, and eventually was conquered by Alexander the Great and the Romans.

Persia

Q: Who founded the Persian Empire?

A: Cyrus the Great founded the Persian Empire in 550 BCE.

Q: What was the political structure of the Persian Empire?

A: The Persian Empire was centralized, with regional governors called satraps managing various regions.

Q: What was the main religion in Persia?

A: Zoroastrianism, which emphasized dualism and the battle between good and evil.

Q: How was Persian society structured?

A: Persian society was stratified, with the king and aristocracy at the top, followed by soldiers, merchants, and peasants.

Q: Why did the Persian Empire collapse?

A: The Persian Empire fell due to internal strife, weak leadership, and the invasion of Alexander the Great.

Umayyad & Abbasid Caliphates

Q: Who founded the Umayyad Caliphate?

A: Muawiya I founded the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 CE.

Q: What was the geographic range of the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates?

A: Both Caliphates spanned vast areas, from Spain to India, promoting cultural exchange.

Q: What religious divisions existed in the Caliphates?

A: The Sunni and Shia divisions within Islam became prominent.

Q: What was the intellectual legacy of the Abbasid Caliphate?

A: The Abbasid Caliphate promoted intellectual advancements, especially in science, math, and philosophy through institutions like the House of Wisdom.

Q: Why did the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates decline?

A: The Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids, and the Abbasid Caliphate weakened due to invasions, including the Mongol conquest in 1258 CE.

West African Kingdoms: Mali, Ghana, Songhai

Q: What were the founding empires in West Africa?

A: The Ghana Empire (circa 300 CE), followed by the Mali Empire (13th century) and Songhai (15th century).

Q: What geographic feature was central to the West African kingdoms' trade?

A: The Niger River and the Sahara Desert, which facilitated trade.

Q: What religion influenced the West African kingdoms?

A: Islam, which was introduced through trade and became a significant force in governance and education.

Q: How was society organized in these West African empires?

A: Society was stratified, with a powerful ruling class, merchants, and farmers. In Mali, women, like Queen Djenne, could hold power.

Q: Why did these empires decline?

A: The empires declined due to internal strife, invasion, and the disruption of trade routes.

East African Kingdoms: Axum, Zimbabwe

Q: When did Axum rise to prominence?

A: Axum rose to prominence around the 4th century CE.

Q: What was the major religion of Axum?

A: Christianity became the state religion of Axum in the 4th century.

Q: How was the geography of Great Zimbabwe significant?

A: Great Zimbabwe was inland and known for its stone structures.

Q: What was the political structure in these kingdoms?

A: Both kingdoms were centralized with powerful monarchies and trade-based economies.

Q: What caused the decline of Axum and Great Zimbabwe?

A: Axum declined due to environmental factors and changes in trade routes, while Great Zimbabwe suffered from resource depletion.

Mesoamerican: Olmec, Chavin

Q: Who were the early Mesoamerican civilizations?

A: The Olmec civilization (circa 1200 BCE) and the Chavin civilization (circa 900 BCE).

Q: What geographic regions did the Olmec and Chavin civilizations occupy?

A: The Olmec were in the Gulf Coast of Mexico, while the Chavin were in the highland valleys of Peru.

Q: What religious practices were common in both civilizations?

A: Both civilizations practiced polytheism and engaged in ritual bloodletting and human sacrifice.

Q: What type of art did the Olmec and Chavin create?

A: The Olmec are known for colossal stone sculptures and intricate jade works. The Chavin produced finely carved stone monuments and pottery.

Q: What caused the decline of the Olmec and Chavin civilizations?

A: The Olmec declined due to environmental changes, while the Chavin faded due to political fragmentation and environmental challenges.