Exam Study Notes

• The Mongols rose to prominence under the leadership of Genghis Khan, establishing the largest contiguous land empire in history, stretching from Eastern Europe to the Sea of Japan.

• Genghis Khan's early life near the Onon River was marked by the challenges of the steppe environment, which shaped his understanding of survival and leadership; his early experiences included hunting in the wooded areas adjacent to the steppe, fostering his skills in archery and horsemanship.

• Genghis Khan (originally Temujin) defied typical Mongol norms due to the adversities and turmoil within his family, including the murder of his father, which forced him to develop resilience and strategic thinking from a young age.

• He strategically allied with a prominent Mongol leader, Jamukha, initially forming a strong bond that later dissolved into rivalry, teaching Temujin the complexities of tribal politics and the necessity of loyalty; he also mastered Steppe diplomacy, understanding the nuances of negotiation and alliance-building among the nomadic tribes.

• He consolidated power by skillfully defeating rivals, such as the Merkits who had kidnapped his wife, and by forging alliances with tribes willing to submit to his rule, which led to the unification of Mongol tribes and his recognition as Genghis Khan, the “universal leader.”

• He ensured loyalty by generously rewarding his followers with spoils of war and positions of power, creating a meritocratic system that valued competence and allegiance over noble birth.

• Military conquests served the dual purpose of keeping the military forces occupied, preventing internal conflicts and power struggles, while also expanding the empire and securing resources.

• Men of fighting age were conscripted into the military through a decimal system (units of 10, 100, 1000, 10,000), ensuring a large and disciplined army; this draft system allowed for rapid mobilization and sustained military campaigns.

• Military and political leaders were selected based on their demonstrated talent and unwavering loyalty, rather than hereditary status, fostering a meritocratic system; the army was the most important institution, central to the empire's expansion and governance.

• The Mongols valued practical skills (usefulness) over social status, demonstrated by their appreciation for merchants and artisans, whom they often relocated to Mongol lands to foster economic development and technological innovation.

• The Mongols were highly skilled hunters, which translated into excellent horsemanship and archery, essential skills for warfare; they also possessed a keen understanding of war psychology, using tactics such as feigned retreats and encirclements to intimidate and defeat their enemies; trickery was a common element in their military strategies.

• It is said that the Mongols had a fear of blood, which influenced their war tactics, leading them to prefer methods that minimized bloodshed for themselves, such as inducing surrender through psychological warfare and offering terms of surrender before engaging in battle.

• Genghis Khan's actions were characterized by clear, strategic purposes, such as eliminating untrustworthy individuals and consolidating his power through calculated decisions that often involved decisive and ruthless measures.

• He united the Mongols against Central Asia, directing their collective strength towards the conquest of settled civilizations and leveraging their nomadic military prowess against less mobile adversaries.

• Genghis Khan's primary focus was on conquest rather than long-term administration; consequently, he did not establish governments designed for sustained stability, which contributed to the fragmentation of the empire after his death.

• The Mongols gained control over China, eventually establishing the Yuan Dynasty, and sought revenge on Persia, driven by diplomatic slights and the desire to expand their empire.

• In their conquests, they were responsible for the massacre of hundreds of thousands of people, with some cities never fully recovering from the devastation, leading to long-term demographic and economic impacts.

• Genghis Khan established a sophisticated messenger system known as the “Yam,” which improved the Silk Roads by ensuring increased safety and efficiency of trade and communication across the vast empire.

• Although the Mongols prioritized military victory, they generally respected captives and ambassadors, particularly those who demonstrated loyalty and submission, integrating skilled individuals into their administration and military.

• Internal issues and rivalries among Genghis Khan's children began to surface as he neared death, leading to the empire's eventual division among his sons and grandsons, each of whom established their own khanates.

• The Mongol empire, though vast and impactful, was relatively short-lived, remaining united for only one generation before splitting into four distinct empires:

  • Golden Horde (Russia/Ukraine): Ruled over the territories of modern-day Russia and Ukraine, extracting tribute and influencing local politics for several centuries.

  • Ilkhanate (Eastern Mediterranean-Middle East): Controlled Persia, Mesopotamia, and parts of the Caucasus, fostering cultural exchange and patronage of the arts and sciences.

  • Yuan Dynasty (China, Capital=Khara Khorum, later Khanbaliq/Beijing): Established by Kublai Khan, this dynasty marked the first time that all of China was ruled by a foreign power.

  • Chagatai Khanate (Uzbekistan to Western Mongolia): Governed Central Asia, maintaining a nomadic lifestyle and facilitating trade along the Silk Road.

• The division of the empire among his sons, while politically fragmenting the Mongol realm, paradoxically facilitated trade and cross-cultural exchange, leading to a period of relative peace and stability known as Pax Mongolica, which fostered economic growth and the spread of ideas.

• The Mongols demonstrated leniency and often spared those who surrendered without resistance, incorporating them into their empire and utilizing their skills and resources.

• The Yuan dynasty (1271-1350) was formally established by Kublai Khan, who adopted Chinese customs and administrative practices to govern the vast and diverse empire.

• The Yuan dynasty was eventually overthrown and succeeded by the Ming dynasty, which restored Han Chinese rule and sought to eliminate Mongol influence.

• The Mongols were culturally and socially distinct from the Han Chinese, maintaining their nomadic traditions and customs despite ruling over a settled civilization.

Ming

• Emperor Taizu/Hongwu (First Ming Emperor) reigned from 1368-1398.

• He implemented a strict centralized rule.

• Advantages:

-He had a tight bureaucracy

-He put nobles in court in order to have absolute rule and prevent rebellions.

• Disadvantages:

-Others/later rulers could not carry out the centralized rule because he did everything for himself. The emperor had no minister and made commands on his own, and he set that as the standard for later emperors. However, this caused issues when there were bad emperors, as they could not fulfill this on their own.

• Hong wu revived the Confucian standard for himself and the government.

• Wei-so: People were not too loyal to generals. Generals rotated among different groups. This is because rebellions can happen when people are loyal to a person/figure instead of a larger concept. (Ex: An Lushan rebellion)

• The Ming dynasty declined because the emperors became worse and held less and less power. Government officials became corrupt, leading to fighting and a weak government.

Ottomans

• The Ottoman empire was an Islamic empire centered in modern-day Turkey. It spanned from Southeast Asia to western Europe and North Africa.

• The Ottoman was located on the borders of the Byzantine empire, enabling successful wars.

• The Ottomans claimed to descend from Osman, a chief of a semi nomadic band of Turks.

• Timur the Lame was a Turko-Mongol military leader. He defeated Sultan Bayezid I at the battle of Ankara, temporarily preventing the Ottomans from growing further. At this battle, he captured Sultan Bayezid, who died soon after.

• The Ottomans came from Turkish nomads and kept some of their beliefs while adapting to urban lifestyle. The dynasty started out as a small warrior principality, but it expanded and became extremely successful.

• The Ottomans utilized gunpowder, allowing them to become militarily successful. 

-The Ottomans used cannons. These cannons allowed the Ottomans to achieve some of their greatest victories of the 15th century.

• Ghazis were religious warriors. They settled in frontier districts, pushing their boundaries forward and getting riches, helping the Ghazi and Central Government.

-The Ghazi had three different forces: light cavalry, volunteer infantry and a professional cavalry force with heavy armor.

• Islam required Christians to donate boys who converted to Islam and learned Turkish. They were known as Janissaries, which are slave troops. They either joined the military or the government based on their abilities. They were extremely loyal and successful.

• Mehmed II/Mehmed the Conqueror took over the Byzantine empire, putting him in control of Constantinople. It became the new capital because it had very optimal qualities. It also became the commercial center.

• His capture of Constantinople was significant because Constantinople had the optimal resources and location that allowed the empire to become more powerful. Mehmed II gained power from this, calling himself a true emperor, and the ruler of the 2 lands (Europe/Asia) and 2 seas (Black Sea and Mediterranean.)Mehmed II also captured/controlled Serbia, Southern Greece and Albania. He removed the last parts of the Byzantine, invaded Crimea and warred with Venice.

-His successors, however, did not continue with westward expansion.

• Conflicts between Bayezid II and his three sons marked the end of his reign. Sultan Bayezid II is father to Selim the Grim (his youngest son), who is father to Suleiman. 

-Selim the Grim confronted his father and older brothers in order to gain the throne. All three of them died, possibly because of him.

• Selim the Grim controlled Syria and Egypt.

• Suleiman conquered Baghdad, Tigris and Euphrates Valleys, Belgrade and Vienna (in Hagsburg.) 

-He also warred with Hungary and Hagsburg.

• Suleiman made the Ottoman much stronger and they became equipped in the Navy. They inherited naval fleets from other lands.

• Emperor Suleiman’s reign marked the end of civil war amongst its claimants, allowing the Ottomans to outlive their Islamic counterparts. His victorious battles pushed Turkish and Islamic presence further into Eastern Europe.