Vietnam Era Study Guide
Definitions:
William Westmoreland: U.S. Army General who commanded American military operations in the Vietnam War from 1964 to 1968.
Vo Nguyen Giap: North Vietnamese general who led Viet Minh and later North Vietnamese Army (NVA) forces against the French and the U.S.
Lyndon B. Johnson: U.S. President (1963–1969) who escalated U.S. involvement in Vietnam after the Gulf of Tonkin incident.
Richard Nixon: U.S. President (1969–1974) who initiated "Vietnamization" and expanded the war into Cambodia and Laos.
Robert McNamara: U.S. Secretary of Defense under Kennedy and Johnson, a key architect of American Vietnam War policy.
Gerald Ford: U.S. President (1974–1977); oversaw the final stages of the Vietnam War and the fall of Saigon.
Clark Clifford: Secretary of Defense who succeeded McNamara and became critical of the war.
Robert Kennedy: U.S. Senator and anti-war presidential candidate in 1968; assassinated during his campaign.
Walter Cronkite: Influential CBS news anchor who publicly questioned the Vietnam War after the Tet Offensive.
Jane Fonda: Actress and anti-war activist who controversially visited North Vietnam in 1972.
John Wayne: American actor who supported the Vietnam War and made pro-military films.
Bob Dylan: Iconic musician known for his anti-war and protest songs during the 1960s.
Lt. William Calley: U.S. Army officer convicted for his role in the My Lai Massacre, where hundreds of Vietnamese civilians were killed.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: 1964 congressional resolution that gave President Johnson broad military powers in Vietnam after reported attacks on the USS Maddox.
Domino Theory: Belief that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would also fall like dominoes.
Tet: Refers to the Tet Offensive (1968), a major Viet Cong and NVA surprise attack that shifted U.S. public opinion on the war.
New Left: A political movement in the 1960s that opposed the Vietnam War and promoted social change.
Rolling Thunder: A sustained bombing campaign against North Vietnam launched by the U.S. in 1965.
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS): Prominent anti-war student organization during the Vietnam era.
Free Speech Movement: 1964 student protest at UC Berkeley demanding the right to political expression, especially related to the Vietnam War.
Hearts and Minds: A strategy aimed at winning over the Vietnamese population to support the South Vietnamese and U.S. cause.
Vietnamization: Nixon's policy of gradually withdrawing U.S. troops and transferring combat responsibilities to South Vietnamese forces.
Watergate: Political scandal involving President Nixon, which led to his resignation in 1974.
Pentagon Papers: Classified documents leaked in 1971 showing that the U.S. government had misled the public about Vietnam.
Operation Menu: Secret U.S. bombing campaign targeting North Vietnamese bases in Cambodia (1969–1970).
Operation Frequent Wind: The final U.S. evacuation of personnel from Saigon in April 1975 as North Vietnamese forces captured the city.
USS Maddox: U.S. Navy destroyer involved in the Gulf of Tonkin incident.
M-16 A1 Assault Rifle: Standard-issue rifle for U.S. troops in Vietnam; known for early reliability issues.
Napalm: Flammable gel used in bombs that caused devastating fires and injuries.
Agent Orange: Chemical defoliant used by the U.S. to destroy jungle cover; caused long-term health issues.
Tunnel System: Complex underground networks used by Viet Cong for hiding, transport, and surprise attacks.
Landing Zone: Helicopter landing site, often used for troop insertions and evacuations.
Hueys: Nickname for the Bell UH-1 helicopters used extensively in Vietnam for transport, medevac, and combat.
Guerrilla Warfare: Tactic used by Viet Cong and NVA involving ambushes, sabotage, and hit-and-run attacks.
Viet Cong: Communist insurgents in South Vietnam who fought against the U.S. and South Vietnamese government.
National Liberation Front (NLF): Political arm of the Viet Cong.
Saigon: Capital of South Vietnam; fell to North Vietnamese forces in 1975, marking the end of the war.
Nguyễn Văn Thiệu: President of South Vietnam (1967–1975).
Dương Văn Minh: Final president of South Vietnam; surrendered to North Vietnamese forces in April 1975.
ARVN (Army of the Republic of Vietnam): South Vietnamese military forces allied with the U.S.
NVA (North Vietnamese Army): Regular military forces of North Vietnam.
MACV (Military Assistance Command, Vietnam): U.S. military command responsible for American operations in Vietnam.
My Lai: Village in South Vietnam where hundreds of civilians were massacred by U.S. troops in 1968.
Ho Chi Minh Trail: Supply route used by North Vietnam to move troops and supplies through Laos and Cambodia into South Vietnam.
Ho Chi Minh: Revolutionary leader of North Vietnam and symbol of Vietnamese communism.
Hawk: Person who supported U.S. military involvement in Vietnam.
Dove: Person who opposed U.S. military intervention and sought peace.
Short Answers:
Describe the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution? What were some of the arguments around it? The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was a 1964 congressional measure that authorized President Johnson to take military action in Vietnam without a formal declaration of war. It was passed following reports of alleged attacks on U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. The resolution effectively escalated U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, marking a shift from providing aid to direct military engagement. The resolution was supported by a desire to prevent communist aggression in Southeast Asia and to defend U.S. allies in South Vietnam. Supporters believed the incidents in the Gulf of Tonkin warranted a strong response to deter further attacks and protect U.S. interests. Critics questioned the accuracy of the reported incidents, suggesting they may have been exaggerated or misrepresented. Some argued that the resolution gave the President excessive power, potentially leading to an escalation of the war without proper congressional oversight. Concerns were also raised about the resolution's potential to undermine the principle of congressional power to declare war.
What was the strategy of Search and Destroy? How was it measured ? How was it hard on the US soldiers? The "Search and Destroy" strategy involved US forces seeking out and attacking enemy targets in Vietnam, often with heavy air and artillery support, before withdrawing. Success was measured by "kill ratios" or the number of enemy soldiers killed. This strategy was difficult on US soldiers due to its ineffectiveness against guerrilla warfare, high casualty rates, and the psychological toll of a war with ambiguous objectives. The core of the strategy was to find and engage the enemy, either destroying them or forcing their surrender. This often involved US troops being inserted into areas where the enemy was suspected to be, searching for them, and then attacking. Progress was assessed by counting enemy soldiers killed, which was often unreliable because North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces would often take their dead away. Ineffective Against Guerrilla Warfare: The Viet Cong and North Vietnamese were adept at guerrilla tactics, making it difficult for US forces to find and engage them. High Casualties: Search and destroy operations often resulted in significant losses of US soldiers. Lack of Clear Objectives: The US military was not fighting a conventional war with defined objectives, which contributed to a sense of futility and a decline in morale. Psychological Toll: The war was brutal, and the constant exposure to combat and the unpredictable nature of the conflict took a heavy toll on soldiers' mental health
Describe the Tet Offensive. How did the Tet Offensive change the opinions of USA? What were the ideas before and after the Tet offensive? The Tet Offensive was a series of coordinated attacks launched by North Vietnamese and communist forces during the Tet holiday in 1968, aiming to cripple the South Vietnamese government and force a U.S. withdrawal. While militarily, the communists failed to achieve their goals, the offensive significantly changed American public opinion and contributed to the war's eventual end. The Tet Offensive shook public confidence in the U.S. government's claims that the war was nearing a successful conclusion. The offensive significantly weakened public support for the war, as Americans began to question the U.S.'s goals and the effectiveness of its military strategy. The Tet Offensive contributed to a growing cynicism about the government and its leaders, with many Americans feeling that they had been misled about the war's progress. While the Tet Offensive initially led to calls for more troops and a larger war effort, it ultimately contributed to the eventual de-escalation of the war and the withdrawal of U.S. forces.
What were the public opinions on the My Lai massacre? What was the outcome? How did the President get involved in My Lai? Why? The My Lai Massacre sparked strong and divided reactions among the American public, mirroring the existing polarization over the Vietnam War itself. The revelation of the massacre, particularly the graphic images and descriptions, horrified many Americans. This fueled anti-war sentiment and led to increased protests against the conflict. The massacre was seen as a stain on American honor and a betrayal of the values the nation claimed to represent. Many questioned the morality of the war itself, arguing that it had corrupted American soldiers. Some argued that soldiers like Lt. Calley were simply following orders and should not be held solely responsible.Others suggested that the brutality was an unfortunate but inevitable consequence of the pressures and horrors of war. There was a widespread perception that Lt. Calley was being used as a scapegoat for the failures of the war and the military leadership.Public opinion polls revealed that a significant portion of Americans opposed his conviction and supported reducing his sentence. Some defended the actions of the soldiers by arguing that the Vietnamese were considered the enemy, even if they were civilians. My Lai became a symbol of the brutality and moral ambiguity of the Vietnam War, strengthening the anti-war movement. The massacre and the military's initial cover-up further eroded public trust in the government and the military's conduct of the war. The massacre prompted discussions about the ethical and psychological effects of war on soldiers. The military reevaluated its training, emphasizing the importance of distinguishing between combatants and civilians and adhering to the laws of war. Multiple soldiers were charged with war crimes, but only Lt. Calley was convicted, highlighting the challenges of holding individuals accountable for atrocities committed during wartime. His sentence was eventually reduced, reflecting the conflicting pressures of public opinion and the political climate. My Lai serves as a reminder of the potential consequences of dehumanization, excessive force, and the pressure to follow orders that violate basic human rights. President Richard Nixon became involved in the My Lai Massacre primarily through his actions surrounding the subsequent investigation, trials, and public outcry, rather than directly ordering or participating in the events themselves. Public Opinion and Political Considerations: The My Lai Massacre became a lightning rod for public opinion about the Vietnam War, and Nixon, as the President, had to respond to public concern and potentially manage political ramifications. Controversy and Polarization: Nixon's actions, such as intervening in Calley's case, were controversial and drew criticism from different groups, reflecting the deeply polarized views surrounding the war and its conduct.
Why as Operation Frequent Wind such an important piece to the story of the Vietnam War for the United States? Operation Frequent Wind, which was the final evacuation of Americans and at-risk Vietnamese from Saigon before the city's fall to the North Vietnamese Army, is a significant part of the Vietnam War story because it symbolized the end of US involvement and the devastating loss of South Vietnam. It highlighted the complex reality of the war, including the plight of those who had aligned with the US and the chaotic conditions that existed as Saigon fell. Operation Frequent Wind marked the final, desperate US effort to save its citizens and allies in the face of defeat. It symbolized the end of the US military presence in Vietnam and the failure of the war effort. The operation also involved the evacuation of South Vietnamese citizens who had been allied with the US and were at risk of persecution. This highlighted the human cost of the war and the difficult choices faced by those caught in the conflict. The evacuation itself was a chaotic and harrowing event, with many Vietnamese attempting to flee by any means possible. The images and stories of the evacuation became iconic symbols of the war's end and the loss of Saigon. Operation Frequent Wind served as a stark reminder of the war's lasting impact, including the suffering of the Vietnamese people and the long-term consequences for both the US and Vietnam.
What is the legacy of the Vietnam War? How did it change policy? How did it effect the ideology of the US military? How did effect the cold war? The Vietnam War left a lasting legacy, significantly impacting U.S. foreign policy, the military, and the Cold War. It led to a shift towards caution in military intervention, the establishment of an all-volunteer military, and a reassessment of the containment policy. The war also affected the Cold War by highlighting the limitations of American military power and contributing to a more cautious approach to global involvement.
In response to the perceived "imperial presidency" during the war, Congress passed the War Powers Act in 1973, aiming to limit presidential power to commit troops to combat without explicit Congressional approval. The war's perceived failure and the high cost in terms of human lives and resources led to a greater emphasis on careful consideration of the use of military force in future conflicts, often referred to as "Vietnam Syndrome". The Vietnam War challenged the long-held belief that the spread of communism would lead to the collapse of non-communist countries, a core tenet of containment. The Vietnam War demonstrated the limitations of American military power and contributed to a decline in American hegemony on the world stage. The war, along with other factors, led to a period of détente (easing of tensions) between the United States and the Soviet Union, but it also intensified the arms race. The all-volunteer force, largely composed of individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, led to a growing separation between the military and wider society.