CRIM 2910 Final

Research Methods – Study Guide: 

• Validity vs Reliability 

• Reliability: consistency in procedures and reaction of participants (deals with the quality of measurements).  

• Validity: measuring what we intend to measure.  

• When reliability and validity are achieved, data are free from systematic errors. 

• Purpose of research (4 types) (ADD MORE TO THIS ONE)  

• To research on a topic in which little is known 

• Might also collect data on some measure to serve as a baseline for later comparisons 

• Also, appropriate when some type of policy change is being considered. 

• Example: 

• Stop & Frisk Study  

• Research is a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing data. 

• Interested in answering a question in a particular phenomenon that is interesting to us 

• Procedures need to be reliable and valid  

• Validity is measuring what we intend to measure 

• Confidentiality vs anonymity 

• Anonymity – when researcher cannot identify a given piece of information with a given person  

• Confidentiality – a researcher can link information with a subject, but promises not to do so publicly  

• Research must make it clear to the responded whether the survey is anonymous or confidential 

• Agreement vs experimental reality 

• Experimental reality: the things we know from direct experience  

• Example: 

• Driving 

• Touching a hot stove and you know it is hot 

• Agreement reality: The things we consider real because we have been told they are real, and everyone agrees  

• Example: 

• It is dangerous to talk to strangers  

• The sky is blue 

• Applied example: 

• Kansas City Preventative Patrol Experiment 

• IRB 

• Institutional Review Board 

• Members look at your study and determine the risks and safeguards against it 

• There are protected groups 

• Minors (parental consent needed) 

• Prisoners 

• There must be a prisoner on the board to approve the study 

• Generalizability (ADD TO THIS ONE) 

• Transferable:  When the results can be transferred from one context to another 

generalizable 

• Mutually exclusive and exhaustive 

• Mutually exclusive – being able to classify every observation to only one attribute  

• - Mutually exhaustive – being able to classify every observation to one of the attributes composing the variable. 

• Unit of analysis 

• The major group that is being studied.  

• Matrix questions 

• Questions that use the same set of answer categories (ex: 1- very satisfied, 2 – somewhat satisfied, 3 – very dissatisfied)  

• Concepts & conceptualization 

• Concepts – words, phrases, or symbols in language that are used to represent mental images/ideas.  

• Conceptualization – the mental process of making concepts more precise to specify what we mean. 

• Ways of knowing 

• In research methods, ways of knowing refer to the different approaches or methods through which people acquire knowledge and understand the world. These are frameworks that guide how we perceive, analyze, and validate information. Common ways of knowing include: 

• Authority: Relying on experts or established sources of knowledge, such as teachers, scientists, or religious texts. For example, accepting a doctor's advice about a treatment. 

• Intuition: Knowing something instinctively or through a "gut feeling," without relying on evidence or reasoning. 

• Experience: Learning through personal encounters and observations. For instance, knowing fire is hot because you’ve touched it before. 

• Reasoning: Using logic and critical thinking to draw conclusions. This includes deductive reasoning (general to specific) and inductive reasoning (specific to general). 

• Empirical Evidence: Gaining knowledge through observation and experimentation, often emphasized in scientific research. For example, conducting a study to determine the effectiveness of a medication. 

• Each way of knowing has its strengths and limitations, and research methods often combine these approaches to build a robust understanding of a topic. 

• Ethics in research – participation & harm to participants (ADD MORE TO THIS ONE) 

• Possible harms in research 

• Physical harm  

• Psychological harm 

• Embarrassment   

• Probabilistic reasoning 

• Understanding why certain things are related, why patterns occur, and making more accurate predictions.  

• Informed consent document 

• Outlines the purpose of the study  

• States the risk of the study 

• States the benefits of the study 

• Satisfies voluntary consent  

• Whether the study will be Confidential or Anonymity  

• Levels of measurement 

• Empirical (ADD MORE TO THIS ONE) 

• the production of knowledge that is based on experiences or observations 

• Contingency questions 

• Random Sampling 

• every person has the same amount of chance to be selected. 

• Questionnaire design 

• Types of Questionnaires 

• Structured: Fixed questions and response options. 

• Unstructured: Open-ended questions for qualitative insights. 

• Semi-structured: A mix of both, allowing some flexibility. 

• Best Practices for Effective Questionnaires 

• Keep It Short: Avoid lengthy questionnaires to reduce respondent fatigue. 

• Use Neutral Language: Minimize bias in wording. 

• Offer Balanced Choices: Provide an equal range of positive and negative options. 

• Ensure Anonymity: Encourage honest responses by assuring confidentiality. 

• Sample vs population 

• Sample: A subset/part of a population/group (Ex. 200 SHU students).  

• Random sampling: every person has the same amount of chance to be selected.  

• Population: The entire group/population you are looking at (Ex. all SHU students) 

• Open ended vs closed ended questions 

• Variables and attributes 

• Grouping of the characteristics  

• Attributes = characteristics  

• Examples: 

• Eye Color: 

• Variable: brown 

• Attribute: color 

• Focus groups 

• Interviews with a group of participants. This format is best for uncovering the perspective of a particular group where group dynamics between group members generate data. 

• What is a qualitative interview and types of qualitative interviews: unstructured, semi-structured, structured 

• Structured interview: an interview with a set of specific questions and answers choices 

• Semi-structured interview: An interview that may have standardized questions but allows for unscheduled probes or spontaneous questions 

• Unstructured interview: An open style of interviewing that is more akin to a conversation, there may be a list of topical areas for discussion 

• Reflexivity 

• The researcher’s awareness of his of his or her perspectives, including his or her personal biases 

• Measurement 

• Special population 

• Minors  

• Need parental consent 

• Prisoners  

• There must be a prisoner on the board to approve the study 

• Probes 

• Prompt participants to elaborate on responses  

• It is important to have built in prompts in case  

• If you have quiet respondents, you can use :  

• attention probe (e.g., lean in)  

• continuation probe (e.g., nod)  

• clarification probe (e.g., ask the respondent to clarify)  

• follow-up questions