lecture notes exam 2

Chapter 5: Emotion

Defining Emotion

  • Emotions are brief, specific responses with:

    • Psychological components (thoughts, subjective experiences)

    • Physiological components (bodily reactions like increased heart rate)

  • Designed to help achieve social goals.

  • Different from moods: more fleeting (seconds to minutes).

  • Functional purposes of emotions:

    • Fear prompts escape or avoidance of danger.

    • Anger leads to seeking justice or correcting wrongs.

    • Guilt motivates corrective actions, such as making amends.

    • Boredom drives seeking new activities.

Theories of Emotion

  • James-Lange Theory: Emotions are a result of physiological reactions.

    • Challenges arise due to similar reactions across different emotions.

  • Schachter & Singer’s Two-Factor Theory: Emotions arise from physiological arousal plus cognitive interpretation.

    • The Suspension Bridge Study illustrates this,

      • Heightened arousal leading to misinterpretation as attraction.

Universality and Cultural Differences

  • Darwin's view: Emotions are biologically universal.

  • Supporting evidence:

    • Paul Ekman's research on universal facial expressions.

    • Jessica Tracy's study on pride and shame postures in the blind.

  • Affect Valuation Theory highlights:

    • U.S. cultures value excitement (individualism).

    • Eastern cultures value calmness (promoting harmony).

Chapter 6: Attitudes

Attitudes Defined

  • An attitude is an evaluative reaction composed of:

    • Affective component: Emotional responses.

    • Behavioral component: Actions associated with the object.

    • Cognitive component: Beliefs about the object.

Explicit vs. Implicit Attitudes

  • Explicit attitudes: Conscious evaluations reported directly.

  • Implicit attitudes: Automatic evaluations, measured indirectly (e.g., IAT).

Attitude-Behavior Link

  • LaPiere's 1934 study showed inconsistency between explicit attitudes and behaviors.

    • Wicker (1969) confirmed modest attitude-behavior correlation (~.30).

Conditions Enhancing Consistency

  • Reduce external pressures to minimize bias.

  • Match specificity of attitudes to behaviors.

  • High cognitive accessibility of attitudes.

  • Stronger attitudes from direct personal experiences.

Theory of Planned Behavior

  • Behavioral intentions influenced by:

    • Attitude toward behavior.

    • Subjective norms (social expectations).

    • Perceived behavioral control (ease of performing behaviors).

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

  • Inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort, motivating resolution through:

    • Changing attitudes or behaviors.

    • Adding supportive cognitions.

    • Minimizing the importance of discrepancies.

Research Paradigms

  • Free-choice paradigm: Emphasizing positives of selected vs. negatives of rejected choices resolves post-decision dissonance.

  • Induced compliance paradigm: Minimal payment influences attitude change significantly.

  • Effort justification: Increased commitment after challenging initiations.

Chapter 7: Persuasion

Persuasion Overview

  • Involves deliberate attempts to change attitudes to influence behaviors.

  • Effective strategies rely on psychological processes.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

  • Two routes of persuasion:

    • Central route: Systematic evaluation leading to durable attitude changes.

    • Peripheral route: Superficial processing effective in low-motivation situations.

Yale Approach to Persuasion

  • Key elements:

    • Speaker: Attractiveness, credibility, and confidence matter.

      • The sleeper effect demonstrates delayed persuasion from initially discredited sources.

    • Message: Quality and coherence enhance persuasiveness.

      • Vivid storytelling often outperforms statistical information.

      • Moderate fear appeals with clear solutions are effective.

    • Audience: Younger audiences are more vulnerable; positive mood enhances persuasiveness.

Strategies to Resist Persuasion

  • Forewarning increases skepticism.

  • Informational preparedness allows for critical analysis.

  • Public commitments solidify stances and increase accountability.

Influence Tactics (Cialdini’s Principles)

  • Reciprocity: Obligation to return favors.

  • Commitment and Consistency: Desire for behavioral consistency.

  • Social Proof: Conformity to others’ behaviors.

  • Liking: Persuasion from likable individuals.

  • Authority: Trust in experts.

  • Scarcity: Increased desire for rare items.