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The Empire (27 BCE – 476 CE)

The empire, or principate, is characterized by the rule of one man – the emperor, or princeps.  Beginning with Diocletian, it is considered a “dominate” rather than a “principate.”  While the senate still functions, it is merely an advisory and administrative body which assists the emperor in his rule.  Consuls are appointed by the emperor, who is often one of the two consuls for any year.  Again, they have no real authority beyond the commands of the emperor.

The Julio-Claudian Emperors (5 emperors, 27 BCE – 68 CE)

A combination of the intermarried Julian (related to Julius Caesar) and Claudian families, this is the first dynasty of Roman emperors.  Succession is always in the family, until Nero doesn’t provide a suitable heir.  While some show capable leadership at times, particularly Augustus throughout his reign, others behave in ways that are very eccentric or perhaps insane. 

Augustus (first known as Octavian) (emperor from 27 BCE - 14 CE) – Some historians argue the true start date of the empire is 31 BCE, since Augustus faced no rivals after defeating Antony at Actium in 31 BCE.  Augustus’ reign marked the beginning of the “Pax Romana” (“Roman Peace”), a period of relative stability throughout the empire until the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 CE.  Memorable points of his reign:

• Officially named Augustus and given imperium (“power”) for 10 years by the senate in 27 BCE.

• The Roman legionary standards lost by Crassus in 53 at Carrhae are returned to Rome. 

• The Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) is dedicated in Rome in 9 BCE.

• His chief lieutenant, Agrippa, builds the Pantheon.  The Pantheon as we now see it is a renovation of Agrippa’s building by Hadrian, but still displays Agrippa’s name.  Agrippa had played a key role in helping Augustus win at Actium in 31.

• The double-doors of the Temple of Janus, closed only in times of peace (hardly ever) were closed during part of Augustus’ reign for only the second time in Roman history.

• Augustus was responsible for many social and government reforms, as well as building programs.  He supposedly said, “I found Rome a city of brick, and left it a city of marble.”  His social reforms aim at restoring traditional Roman family values.  He exiles the great poet Ovid for some scandalous poetry; Ovid cites the reason of his banishment as “carmen et error” (a poem and a mistake).

• Known for saying “festina lente” (make haste slowly) and, before he dies, “acta est fabula” (the story is finished)

• In 9 CE, three legions led by the Roman general Varus were completely destroyed by Germans under Arminius in the Teutoberg Forest.  The legionary standards, which featured and eagle decoration, were captured.  Augustus, repeatedly shouted to himself, “Quinctilius Varus, where are my eagles?!”  (“Vare, redde mi legiones” – Varus give me back my legions)

• By his first wife, Scribonia, Augustus has his only child, a daughter named Julia. He is obsessed with finding a proper male heir.  Julia first marries Augustus’ nephew Marcellus, who is praised by Vergil and believed to have a bright future, but dies young in 23 BC.  She then marries Augustus’ chief lieutenant Agrippa, by whom she has five children, including Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar, who both die young, and Agrippina the Elder.  Her third husband is the stepson of Augustus, Tiberius, by whom she has no children and to whom she is completely unfaithful.  Augustus eventually exiles her for her loose morals and lascivious behavior.  Though Julia’s daughter Agrippina will become the mother of Caligula (through her marriage to Tiberius’ nephew Germanicus) and grandmother of Nero, she provides no true near-term heir for Augustus.

• Augustus most likely dies of old age.  His second wife is Livia.  Her son Tiberius succeeds Augustus.  Her other son, Drusus dies early but not before his son Germanicus is born.  Germanicus recovers the eagles of Varus after Augustus’ death, and is the father of Caligula and grandfather of Nero.

• Augustus became the first deified emperor during the reign of Tiberius.

Tiberius (emperor 14 - 37) – Augustus’s stepson (son of Livia by her first marriage), whom Augustus adopted.  The oldest of the Julio-Claudians when he ascended the throne, Tiberius was a suspicious ruler who eventually left Rome to rule from his palace on the island of Capri.  Unpopular at times, he supposedly said “Oderint dum probent” (“Let them hate, so long as they approve”).  His evil advisor Sejanus wields great influence by which many innocent men are executed for treason, until Tiberius has Sejanus himself executed for treason in 31. Tiberius’ sister-in-law, Antonia (the wife of Drusus, daughter of Antony and Octavia), reveals the intrigues of Seianus to him. Macro becomes the new praetorian prefect.  Most likely Tiberius died of old age, though some suggest Macro smothers him in his bedsheets to ensure the succession of Caligula.

Caligula (emperor 37 - 41) – His name means literally “Little Boot,” a nickname given to him as a little boy by the soldiers under the command of his father, the great general Germanicus (grandson of Livia, nephew of Tiberius).  Caligula behaved strangely as an emperor, even naming his horse Incitatus as a Senator.  He was assassinated by Cassius Chaerea, a member of the praetorian guard (palace guards).

Claudius (emperor 41 - 54) – Believed to be a stuttering fool as a young man, Claudius was found hiding behind a curtain by palace guards after Caligula’s assassination, and was declared emperor by these guards.  Britain was invaded (in 43) and conquered during his reign.  Freedmen (former slaves) became his chief advisors.  His third wife, Messalina, was executed for marrying another and conspiring against him.  His fourth wife, Agrippina the Younger, brought a son by her first marriage.  This son, Nero, was betrothed to Claudius’ daughter Octavia, and succeeded Claudius when he died (most likely of natural causes, though some suggested Agrippina poisoned him with a bowl of poisoned mushrooms).  Claudius’s son Britannicus (by Messalina) was disposed of by Nero after he ascended the throne.

Nero (emperor 54 - 68) – The youngest of the Julio-Claudians when he ascended the throne, Nero was an exceptional emperor for his first 5 years.  His teachers included the great Stoic philosopher Seneca, and his mother Agrippina the Younger wielded great influence.  Then he dissolved into a life of reckless vanity and destruction.  Some significant events include the following:  

• Nero ordered the murder of his rival Britannicus, the young son of Claudius and Messalina.  

• He also had his wife Octavia (the daughter of Claudius) put to death.

• Nero ordered the assassination of his mother Agrippina the Younger, though she escaped several attempts.  For instance, he had a boat prepared to collapse so that she would drown at sea as if by accident.  When it began to sink, one of Agrippina’s servants shouted for help, pretending to be Agrippina.  The real Agrippina watched as this servant was beaten, and swam to shore herself despite her age.  Later, she was simply beaten to death by the admiral of Nero’s fleet, Anicetus.

• Alarmed by his pupil’s life and fearing for his own, Seneca took his own life in 65.       

• Nero was notorious for his persecution of the Christians, executing many followers of the emerging faith.

• A great fire swept through Rome in 64.  Many believed Nero set the fire in order to clear space for the palatial residence (the Domus Aurea, or golden house) which he soon built.  After his death, the space where he placed a huge lake in a palace garden became the site of the Colosseum.  It was rumored that Nero fiddled or sang while Rome burned.

• Nero believed himself to be a great actor and musical performer, and made a concert tour of Greece in 66 to face the best competition.  Naturally, he always won first place.

• During his reign was the revolt of Boudicca (or Boadicea) in Brittania

• Vindex led a revolt in Gaul against Nero in 68, beginning the erosion of his power.  It was put down by Verginius Rufus.  A Roman general named Galba bribed the praetorian guards to desert Nero.  Seeing the writing on the wall, Nero asked one of his servants to plunge a sword into him.

His last words:  “Qualis artifex pereo” (“What an artist dies in me!”).

The Flavian Emperors (69 – 96 CE)

The Flavian Dynasty (after their family nomen, Flavius) had a relatively stable rule after the chaos of 69.  

Vespasian (emperor 69 -79) – listed above also; the father of Titus and Domitian.  In reference to the deification of the earlier Julio-Claudians, said on his deathbed “Vae, puto deus fio” (“Alas, I think that I am becoming a god”).

Titus (emperor 79 - 81) – showed great promise, but died young of natural causes.  Had put down the Jewish rebellion at Jerusalem and Masada while Vespasian was emperor, which is commemorated by the Arch of Titus in Rome. There are two significant events during Titus’s short reign:

• August 24, 79 CE:  Mt. Vesuvius erupts, burying Pompeii and Herculaneum.

• 80 CE:  The Flavian amphitheater, named after this dynasty, is finished and dedicated.  It is also known as the Colosseum, because of its size and the famous Colossus-like statue (formerly of Nero, now with the face of the sun god Helios) which stands just outside of it.  The Colosseum will be a premiere attraction in Rome from then until today.

Domitian (emperor 81 - 96) – suspicious and tyrannical, he is betrayed by his wife (Domitia) and murdered by his butler (Stephanus).  He liked to be called “dominus et deus”.