PSC 101 Key Concepts

Unit 5:

1. The framers envisioned the presidency as a balanced and limited role, designed to avoid the concentration of power seen in monarchies. The president was meant to enforce laws passed by Congress, command the military, oversee foreign relations, and ensure the nation's laws were faithfully executed. Anti-Federalists worried the office could evolve into a form of unchecked power, resembling a king. To address these fears, the Constitution included checks and balances—Congress controls funding and lawmaking, the Senate approves treaties and appointments, and the president can be impeached.

2. The original purpose of the Electoral College was to balance power between populous and less populous states and to act as a buffer between the general population and the selection of the president. Today, citizens vote in their states, and each state's electors cast their votes based on the state's popular vote outcome. Each state gets electors equal to its total number of Senators and Representatives. A candidate needs at least 270 of the 538 total electoral votes to win the presidency.

3. The main benefits of the Electoral College include ensuring that less populated states have a voice, promoting national campaigning rather than regional focus, and providing a clear, decisive result. Drawbacks include the possibility of a candidate winning the presidency despite losing the national popular vote, the overemphasis on swing states, and the potential for faithless electors who don't vote according to their state’s popular choice.

4. Reform alternatives to the Electoral College include the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact, which would award states' electoral votes to the national popular vote winner — this ensures majority rule but could sideline smaller states. Another option is proportional allocation, where electoral votes are divided according to the state's popular vote — promoting fairness but potentially leading to more contested results. A third alternative is ranked-choice voting, where voters rank candidates, ensuring majority support — this reduces vote splitting but may complicate the process.

5. The president’s formal powers come from Article II of the U.S. Constitution. These include the power to veto bills (blocking legislation unless Congress overrides the veto), serve as Commander in Chief of the armed forces (directing military action), and negotiate treaties (though they require Senate approval).

6. The president’s informal powers stem from public expectation, political influence, and tradition. These include setting the national agenda (influencing what policies are discussed), using executive orders (directing federal operations without congressional approval), and acting as the nation’s chief spokesperson (rallying public support). The greatest informal power is often considered the power to persuade — a president’s ability to sway Congress, the public, and international leaders is crucial for enacting policies and is measured by legislative success, approval ratings, and media influence.

7. In international affairs, the president acts as the country’s chief diplomat, negotiating treaties, recognizing foreign governments, and shaping foreign policy. The president also commands the military, allowing quick responses to international crises, though Congress retains the power to declare war.

8. The framers envisioned a cooperative yet competitive relationship between Congress and the president. They granted Congress legislative authority while the president holds veto power, ensuring negotiation and compromise. The presidency was intended to be energetic and capable of swift action but restrained by the legislature to prevent tyranny.

9. The War Powers Act of 1973 limits the president's ability to engage in military action without congressional approval. It requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and mandates troop withdrawal after 60 days without congressional authorization. This act reasserted Congress’s constitutional power over war decisions, leading to ongoing disputes about the balance of power.

10. Recent Supreme Court decisions have addressed presidential immunity, affirming that no one, not even the president, is above the law. In Trump v. Vance (2020), the Court ruled that a sitting president is not immune from state criminal subpoenas, reinforcing accountability. However, the Court acknowledged some protections against harassment and politically motivated investigations, balancing transparency with the presidency’s functioning.

Unit 6:

1. The bureaucracy is crucial to the governmental process because it implements and administers federal laws and policies. It transforms broad legislative goals into actionable rules and services, ensuring the government operates smoothly and consistently. Beyond implementation, bureaucracies regulate industries, provide public services, and enforce laws — making them essential to daily governance.

2. Cabinet departments are major administrative units headed by secretaries who serve on the president’s cabinet (e.g., Defense, State). Independent executive agencies, like NASA or the EPA, operate outside the cabinet structure but still report to the president. Independent regulatory agencies, such as the SEC or FCC, regulate specific sectors and are designed to be more insulated from political influence, led by multi-member boards with fixed terms.

3. A primary concern with independent regulatory agencies is their accountability. Since they operate with significant autonomy, critics argue they lack direct oversight, making them less responsive to public will or political change. Additionally, their complex regulations can create bureaucratic inertia, slowing down innovation and business flexibility.

4. Independent regulatory agencies are “independent” because they’re structured to operate outside direct presidential control. Their leaders serve fixed terms and can’t be removed without cause, ensuring decisions are made based on expertise and long-term policy goals rather than political pressures.

5. Congressional oversight of the bureaucracy faces challenges like limited time, resources, and expertise. Bureaucracies often possess more technical knowledge than legislators, making effective oversight difficult. Furthermore, political polarization and competing priorities can lead to inconsistent or superficial oversight.

6. An “iron triangle” refers to the stable, mutually beneficial relationship between a congressional committee, a bureaucratic agency, and an interest group. Each participant supports the others — agencies get funding, committees receive political support, and interest groups gain favorable policies. This can lead to policy stagnation, prioritizing special interests over public needs.

7. Deregulation removes government rules from industries to promote competition and efficiency, while privatization shifts public services to private companies. Benefits include increased innovation, lower costs, and less government spending. However, drawbacks can include reduced public accountability, job losses, and poorer service quality, particularly in essential services.

8. The presidential appointment process can help bureaucracy by ensuring agency heads align with the president’s policy goals, fostering unified leadership. However, it can also hinder outcomes if appointments prioritize loyalty over competence or if partisan conflicts delay confirmations, leaving key roles unfilled.

9. The Pendleton Act of 1883 replaced the spoils system with a merit-based system for hiring federal employees. It aimed to reduce corruption and patronage by requiring job applicants to pass competitive exams, promoting professionalism and expertise in public service.

10. Other methods of reforming the bureaucracy include performance-based budgeting (tying funds to results), streamlining processes through technology, and increasing transparency. These reforms have had mixed success — while some improved efficiency, others faced pushback from entrenched interests or created new layers of complexity.

Unit 7:

1. The bureaucracy is crucial to the governmental process because it implements and administers federal laws and policies. It transforms broad legislative goals into actionable rules and services, ensuring the government operates smoothly and consistently. Beyond implementation, bureaucracies regulate industries, provide public services, and enforce laws — making them essential to daily governance.

2. Cabinet departments are major administrative units headed by secretaries who serve on the president’s cabinet (e.g., Defense, State). Independent executive agencies, like NASA or the EPA, operate outside the cabinet structure but still report to the president. Independent regulatory agencies, such as the SEC or FCC, regulate specific sectors and are designed to be more insulated from political influence, led by multi-member boards with fixed terms.

3. A primary concern with independent regulatory agencies is their accountability. Since they operate with significant autonomy, critics argue they lack direct oversight, making them less responsive to public will or political change. Additionally, their complex regulations can create bureaucratic inertia, slowing down innovation and business flexibility.

4. Independent regulatory agencies are “independent” because they’re structured to operate outside direct presidential control. Their leaders serve fixed terms and can’t be removed without cause, ensuring decisions are made based on expertise and long-term policy goals rather than political pressures.

5. Congressional oversight of the bureaucracy faces challenges like limited time, resources, and expertise. Bureaucracies often possess more technical knowledge than legislators, making effective oversight difficult. Furthermore, political polarization and competing priorities can lead to inconsistent or superficial oversight.

6. An “iron triangle” refers to the stable, mutually beneficial relationship between a congressional committee, a bureaucratic agency, and an interest group. Each participant supports the others — agencies get funding, committees receive political support, and interest groups gain favorable policies. This can lead to policy stagnation, prioritizing special interests over public needs.

7. Deregulation removes government rules from industries to promote competition and efficiency, while privatization shifts public services to private companies. Benefits include increased innovation, lower costs, and less government spending. However, drawbacks can include reduced public accountability, job losses, and poorer service quality, particularly in essential services.

8. The presidential appointment process can help bureaucracy by ensuring agency heads align with the president’s policy goals, fostering unified leadership. However, it can also hinder outcomes if appointments prioritize loyalty over competence or if partisan conflicts delay confirmations, leaving key roles unfilled.

9. The Pendleton Act of 1883 replaced the spoils system with a merit-based system for hiring federal employees. It aimed to reduce corruption and patronage by requiring job applicants to pass competitive exams, promoting professionalism and expertise in public service.

10. Other methods of reforming the bureaucracy include performance-based budgeting (tying funds to results), streamlining processes through technology, and increasing transparency. These reforms have had mixed success — while some improved efficiency, others faced pushback from entrenched interests or created new layers of complexity.