IR lesson 6

Cases

Framework for the Case

• Thesis question

• Possible approaches

• Difficult approaches

• Links to the readings

• Three main arguments

• Likely conclusion

Ch 2 – Essay Prompts

• Does the possession of nuclear weapons facilitate arms control negotiations and foster strategic stability, or does it impede disarmament efforts and exacerbate global tensions?

• In what ways can the memory of the Holocaust contribute to the ongoing fight against racism, discrimination, and other forms of human rights abuses in contemporary society?

Case Study 1: Regulating Nuclear Weapons

• Nuclear weapons regulation offers a glimpse of interactions between states.

• Through diplomacy and influence, the U.N. helped mitigate war and found ways to achieve progress in critical areas.

• U.S./Russian negotiations and actions after Cuban Missile Crisis were verified by U.N., which individually checked each nation-state for compliance.

• The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was a triumph of diplomacy. It limited the spread of nuclear weapons and encouraged states to share non-military nuclear technology.

CASE STUDY 2.1: Regulating Nuclear Weapons

• The quest to regulate nuclear weapons offers a glimpse of interactions between states that were sworn enemies and had little in common due to incompatible economic and political systems.

• Through diplomacy and the influence of the United Nations, they were able to avoid war and find ways to achieve progress in the most critical of areas.

• This provides one possible answer to the question of why there has not been a third world war.

• The United States was the first state to successfully detonate a nuclear weapon, followed by the Soviet Union (1949), the United Kingdom (1952), France (1960), and China (1964).

• As the number of nations possessing nuclear weapons increased, there were fears that these weapons would proliferate (spread rapidly).

• As the weapons developed, they became many orders of magnitude more destructive.

• By the early 1960s, nuclear weapons had been built that could cause devastation across over one hundred square kilometers.

• Recognizing the danger, the United Nations attempted in vain to outlaw nuclear weapons in the late 1940s.

• Following that failure, a series of less absolute goals were advanced, most notably to regulate the testing of nuclear weapons.

• Weapons that were being developed required test detonations, each releasing large amounts of radiation into the atmosphere, endangering ecosystems and human health.

• By the late 1950s, diplomacy under a United Nations framework had managed to establish a moratorium (suspension) on nuclear testing by the United States and the Soviet Union.

• However, by 1961 a climate of mistrust and heightened Cold War tensions between the two nations caused testing to resume.

• In 1962, the world came to the brink of nuclear war during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Case Study 2: Human Rights and Sovereignty

• Post-WWII, the U.N. spearheaded the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in response to the Holocaust. (see Articles 1, 2, and 3)

• Nation-state conflict decreased after ‘The Declaration,’ and historical violations have become a rarity.

• The Responsibility to Protect (2005), endorsed by all U.N. members, helps hold nation-states accountable to the international community should they violate the UDHR.

• Invoked in over 100 resolutions signifying it’s not just a symbolic statement.

CASE STUDY 2.2: Human Rights and Sovereignty

• The United Nations became ground zero for discussion of human rights, set up to represent all the earth's recognized nation-states.

• Just three years after the organization was created, the 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) had been agreed by virtually all of the United Nations' member states outlining thirty articles that - in principle - extended to all the earth's people.

• Snapshot of the first three articles of the UDHR are:- Article 1: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

  • Article 2: Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.

• During the Second World War, Adolf Hitler's Nazi regime had been discovered to have undertaken a program of exterminating Jews and other unwanted peoples such as homosexuals, political opponents, and the disabled.

• In the Holocaust, an estimated 17 million people were killed by the Nazis through overwork in labor camps, undernourishment and various forms of execution - which included gas chambers and firing squads.

• Of those, approximately six million were Jewish two-thirds of the European Jewish population.

• The phrase 'never again' became synonymous with these events, expressing a desire to prevent mass slaughter of human beings in a third world war and to establish an international standard of human rights that would protect people from atrocities like the Holocaust and from unnecessary large-scale warfare.

Ch 3 – Essay prompts

• The Valladolid Debate grappled with moral and ethical dimensions of intervention in the name of empire. How might these historical arguments inform our understanding of intervention as a tool for political equality and anti-colonial emancipation in contemporary international relations?

• Reflect on the conventional concept of sovereignty in international relations. How could an understanding of Indigenous resistance and survival provide a more nuanced perspective on global sovereignty and the role of Indigenous nations?

Case Study 1: The Valladolid Debate

• Las Casas sought out commonality

• Indigenous were not at fault for never hearing the news of the Gospel

• Birthright Lottery - untaxed income/value based on the location of your birth, no fault of your own

• Do you believe that where you are born should matter?

Case Study 1: The Valladolid Debate Cont.

• De las Casas, who once believed that ‘Indios’ and ‘blacks’ did not deserve freedom, changed course and debated the topic

• The Valladolid debate was not about domestic or international rights, but a question If there is a shared concept of humanity

• the ‘responsibility to protect’ utilizes a vision of humanity to justify intervention

• reinforces saviors and victims (new hierarchy)

• the human is one who suffers – prevention of suffering is the highest goal (liberalism? )

Case Study 2: The First Continental Conference on Five Hundred Years of Indigenous Resistance

• Conference was organised by CONAIE, ONIC, and SAIIC with representation from 120 indigenous nationalities demanding meaningful self-government.

• Challenging the idea of non-interference stemming from the Treaty of Westphalia

• The fiction of nation statehood has never been true for indigenous communities

• Monroe Doctrine – no European powers should meddle in the affairs of the Americas (excluding Haiti)

Case Study 2: The First Continental Conference on Five Hundred Years of Indigenous Resistance cont.

• The idea of ‘plurinationality’ establishes a commitment to finding solidarity with all classes and groups within and across state borders.

• United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples – 20 years to develop, settler states initially oppose, eventually recognize saying it is aspirational and not legal

• 500 years of indigenous resistance = sovereignty has never been complete

• A departure point of 1492 helps us understand where these groups are coming from to understand their claims.

• The problem of reparations and reconciliation – how do we measure harm, impact, legacy, cost?

Ch 4 – Essay Prompts

• Analyze how diplomatic efforts by underrepresented nations to gain influence within international institutions challenge or reinforce existing theories of diplomacy and negotiation in international relations. What implications might this have for future power dynamics?

• Evaluate the role of emerging economies in steering global economic growth. In what ways might the shifting economic power from developed to developing nations reshape the principles and practices of international relations?

Case Study 1: The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) in Nairobi, Kenya

• Most IOs (UN, IMF, WTO, UNHCR, etc.) with global mandates are headquartered in the West because they are Western creations and are better resourced from Western locations.

• Joseph Odero-Jowi, Kenyan permanent representative to the UN, fought for Nairobi to become HQ because the Third World was unjustly denied opportunities to host UN HQs in the past.

• Subsequently, UN-Habitat was HQ’d in Nairobi making it a pillar of progress for the UN by representing prominent Southern contribution to global governance.

• Led to strengthening and growth of Southern IOs.

Case Study 2: Xi Jingping at Davos

• World Economic Forum, formed in 1971, started with Western European business leaders, then opened to the rest of Europe and the US.

• In 2017, Xi Jingping was given the opportunity to give the keynote address suggesting a Global South leadership role, rather than a challenger to global governance and international order.

• Stressed that a global leader, namely China, should steer global economic growth since the majority of economic growth comes from developing nations.

• Speech pointed to a multiplex world order with overlapping that is not purely Southern or anti-West.

Ch 5 - Essay Prompts

• Assess the impact of social media on political activism and its potential to incite societal change. How might these dynamics challenge the traditional theories and practices of international relations?

• Examine the role of celebrity activism enabled by internet-based communication in shaping international discourse and policy. What are the potential advantages and pitfalls of this new form of political engagement in international relations?

Case Study 1: Social Media and the Arab Spring

• Social media relevant to IR: it enables common people to communicate, network, organise, influence, mobilise, with global repercussions.

• Mohamed Bouazizi’s self-immolation in protest to working and living conditions became icon of disenchanted Arab youth.

• Social media caused societal mobilisation that led to demonstrations in 18 states, 4 overthrown governments, and several civil wars.

• Conditions for social media to easily erode state power or oppression are not easily achieved, nor common.

Case Study 2: Greta Thunberg and Climate Activism

• She started as a 15 y/o on a ‘School strike for climate’ in front of the Swedish Parliament during school hours.

• Social media and other online activity ensured dissemination of her message across the world.

• She is an example of ‘grass-roots’ activism that morphed into a wider political movement.

• Related to her concept, celebrity activism is also enabled by internet-based communication (e.g. #BringBackOurGirls).

Ch 6 - Essay Prompts

• Discuss the liberal view of warfare as ‘exogenous’ that can be rectified through democracy and institutionalization. What are the strengths and weaknesses of this perspective in the current international context?

• Evaluate the process through which ideas of statehood become recognized and accepted in the international community. What stages and dynamics are involved in this process, and how might they influence current international relations?

Case Study 1: Warfare – A Bug or a Feature?

• Realists believe warfare is an ever-present feature as international anarchy drives conflict because security is scarce.

• In conflict states have two choices: balance power with alliances, or bandwagon with competitors to mitigate war.

• Liberals believe warfare is a bug that can be addressed by growing democracy and through the spread of institutions like the UN.

• Diplomacy between Iran and US from 2003-2015 led to JCPOA and avoided war between the two nation-states.

• In the US-Iran case, the liberal vantage point shows the effectiveness of interpersonal relationships to build trust.

Case Study 2: Theorising the United Nations

• Constructivists, unlike liberals and realists, see the UN as a place to study the emergence of new norms.

• The US invasion of Iraq, according to constructivists, was an irregular behaviour that came with consequences in dipolmatic relations after 2003.

• Palestine example of a ‘norm lifecycle’:- Emergence of idea of statehood is clearly active.

  • Cascade: 2/3rds of world states accept Palestinian statehood.

  • Internalisation of norm is yet to be realised to make behavior natural.

Ch 7 - Essay Prompts

• Examine the problem of nations with poor human rights records participating in key international bodies. What does this suggest about the assumptions and biases of these institutions?

• Analyze the characterization of certain states as 'rogue' within the international system. How might this perception influence international policies and actions, and what are its implications for the study of security in international relations?

Case Study 1: Postcolonialism, Feminism, and the UN

• Postcolonial scholarship posits that the P5 of the UN Security Council continues to wield disparate power in the modern era.

• Lack of representation from Africa or Latin America implicitly, and sometimes explicitly, restricts Global South initiatives.

• The UN ironically elected Saudi Arabia to three principal women’s rights bodies despite its dismal record on gender inequality.

• Despite being inconsistent, the UN has also made progress on promoting feminist movements that promote equal value in participation and in peace and security.

Case Study 2: Marxism, Poststructuralism and Warfare

• Marxists believe war is used by capitalists to ensure the preservation of power, e.g., 2003 Iraq War.

• A system that glorifies Western capitalists’ ability to change “repressive” regimes without repercussions is unethical and unequal to Marxists.

• Poststructuralist perspective is that ‘we’ would never have to use nuclear weapons because ‘we’ are humane and peaceful. If ‘they’ have the capacity, it can be seen as an act of aggression.

• E.g., Iran and North Korean nuclear programmes seen as rogue.

Ch 13 - Essay Prompts

• Reflect on the dichotomy between the attention given to sexual violence in conflict versus domestic violence in both peacetime and conflict. How might colonial notions of gender influence this imbalance and affect our understanding of these violations?

• Reflect on the ways in which some nations' advocacy for LGBTQ+ rights can reinforce socio- cultural divides and inequalities. How does this dynamic complicate international relations and efforts to promote a queerer IR?

Case Study 1: Sexual Violence and War

• Sexual violence in conflict is a continuation or escalation of gendered violence towards women and men in peace.

• Frequently neglected aspects of sexual violence in war:- Rape is often committed by men against men

  • Women also commit sexual violence in war

  • The most prevalent form of sexual violence against women in conflict is domestic violence by a partner or relative.

• Sexual violence is about power, control and humiliation.

Case Study 1: cont.

• Initiatives to combat sexual violence in conflict have largely missed gendered power relations.

• E.g., The Independent Commission for Aid Impact’s attempt to address causes of intimate partner violence in peacetime and war led to it neglecting the issue of sexual violence against men and boys.

• The UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office attempted to address sexual violence against men, women, boys and girls, but only focused on conflict zones and neglected gendered power relations in peace time.

• The focus on sexual violence in conflict instead of domestic violence in peacetime and conflict shows that stances are only taken when violations of women’s rights are perceived to affect men.

Case Study 2: Sexuality and Borders

• 'Gay conditionality’ in queer theory asserts that the West’s conditions of withholding aid until laws banning homosexuality are drawn up are ironic given the laws were brought by colonisation.

• When LGTBQ+ people seek asylum in the Global North from the Global South, they rarely succeed, contradicting the idea that the Global North is a safe and tolerant place.

• Double burden of proof required by LGBTQ+ asylum seekers. They need proof that they are in danger from their state and proof they are part of an LGTBQ+ group.

Ch 8 - Essay Prompts

• Discuss the critical role of information dissemination during global health crises. How does the management of information influence public trust and societal attitudes towards global health policies?

• Evaluate the impact of Security Council dynamics on the recognition of contested states. How do power politics and veto rights influence the trajectory of such regions on the global stage?

Case Study 1: The 2014-2016 West African Ebola Pandemic

• From 2014-2016 Ebola ravaged the African continent. State and INGO responses to WHO helped contain the spread.

• Assets from nation-states, INGOs, and other international organisation were coordinated through WHO to help mitigate the spread and treat the virus.

• Highlighted the need for collaborative efforts at the community, state, and international level.

• Lessons learned - dissemination of information important to mitigate mistrust and stigma related to Ebola.

Case Study 2: The Question of Kosovo’s Sovereignty

• The 1999 Kosovo war between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Kosovo Liberation Army kicked off.

• Humanitarian intervention from NATO and 200 humanitarian organisations coordinated by UNHCR were engaged on the ground.

• The UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo was not meant to resolve the legal status of Kosovo. Without resolution, Kosovo declared self independence with contention from Serbia.

• Without a ruling, Kosovo has provisional institutions. Half the world’s states recognise Kosovo, but it is not a UN member state as the Security Council can’t reach an agreement due to Russia’s veto.

Ch11 - Essay Prompts

• NO ICC PAPERS

• How does leadership shape the interactions between a state and international institutions? Discuss with reference to situations where a change in leadership has led to significant alterations in policy

Case Study 1: From War Crimes to the International Criminal Court (ICC)

• ICC sole permanent international court ruling on criminal liability of individuals on proof that local courts are unable or unwilling to investigate alleged crimes. It can’t impede state sovereignty.

• After WWII, international military tribunals were established by allied powers and contributed to the definition and application of international crimes we know today.

• Effectiveness of ICC is a matter of perspective.- Realists doubt it because of the low number of proceedings.

  • Liberals argue that ICC is evidence for international cooperation.

Case Study 2: The Trump Administration’s Withdrawal from JCPOA

• Sanctions on Iran were lifted in return for agreeing to specific nuclear non -proliferation measures.

• The US withdrawal without a formal conflict resolution in agreement shows how compliance with agreements change with state priorities.

• The withdrawal should be assessed under international law to see if JCPOA had any binding effect.

• Even if all parties agreed that it was non-binding, lawyers would consider whether formal UN endorsement created a legal obligation.

Ch 14 - Essay Prompts

• Examine the concept of collective security in the context of a multilateral response to regional conflicts. How might differing IR theories evaluate the effectiveness and implications of such interventions?’

• Discuss how the widespread availability of small arms might contribute to domestic insecurity, and how this might influence a state's position in international relations. How might different IR theories interpret this situation?

Case Study 1: The Gulf War

• Iraq invaded Kuwait as a result of Kuwaiti’s decision to continue selling oil above the OPEC-ordered quota, driving down prices.

• Liberals use the UN system of collective security as a case in point of multilateralism and cooperation in international law.

• Realists believe that the episode did not directly involve any major powers’ national security, making authorisation to react simple.

• The insights and contrasting interpretations make the Gulf War a pertinent example of the utility of IRs’ theoretical toolkit in examining how security is interpreted at the state and system levels.

Case Study 2: Gun Violence in the U.S.

• Given that guns kill more people than terrorists in the US, should gun laws be considered a security issue?

• If taken literally, according to the ‘Responsibility to Protect’, the US has not protected its citizens, meaning that the international community might be able to intervene.

• Historically, some issues have been perceived as security problems while others have not (Sandy Hook vs. BLM).

Ch 15 - Essay Prompts

• Examine the interplay between online discourse in certain communities and the rise of misogynistic and fascistic ideologies. How might this affect the perception and formulation of international policies?

• Explore how the act of revoking citizenship can be used as a tool of political control and exclusion. How does this practice inform our understanding of sovereignty and its limits?

Case Study 1: InCels as Transnational Terrorists?

• ‘Involuntary celibate’ (InCel) is an online men’s group united in their belief that sex and levels of attractiveness determine place in society.

• The community’s violence is a result of perceived injustices, arguing that women not having sex with them are to blame.

• InCel attacks were confined to North America until a German man killed nine people in February 2020.

• The persistence of sexism and domestic violence worldwide makes it difficult to label InCel as a terrorist group. Violence is unorganised and lacks strategic purpose.

Case Study 2: Women and Children Returning Home from the Islamic State

• As a means of countering terrorism and in the interest of ‘public safety’, some EU countries stated that women and children will not be assisted in their quests to return home. Some have had their citizenship revoked.

• Since most women did not participate in armed violence, it is unclear what charges would be levied, but there has been some success in prosecutions.

• Measures taken by Western states can leave insecure and vulnerable states at a higher risk because ‘radicalised’ citizens cannot return home.

Ch 16 - Essay Prompts

• Discuss the role of states in managing economic disparity and social inequality within and across borders. How do changes in state policy and international relations affect these issues?

• Discuss the role of citizenship within the context of a transitioning nation that has historical connections to both Africa and the Arab world. How can different international relations theories be applied to this situation?

Case Study 1: The Venezuelan Exodus

• This showed how large-scale population movements change destinations depending on the global and societal contexts at a given time.

• The Quito Process, signed by 11 states, provided Venenzuelans specific channels to regularise their stay and apply for family reunion measures, but later signatories restricted the entry of new refugees.

• The crisis pushed different migrants to reverse their migratory trajectories (e.g., Colombians sought work elsewhere; Venezuelans seeking work in Chile turned to the black market because of the lack of rights in labour markets due to not having permits).

Case Study 2: Morocco

• European states pressured Southern Mediterranean countries (Morocco, Tunisia) to develop migrant hosting abilities and to keep migrants out.

• Although previously considered a transit state for migrants, Morocco became known as a place of migration by some Central and Western African countries.

• Migrant rights activists contend that there are two realities in Morocco:- Changed landscape where migrants are an integral part of the urban environment in Rabat.

  • The northern border where migrants are harassed daily.

Ch 17 - Essay Prompts

• Analyze the relationship between ‘poverty’ and ‘improvement’. How do these dimensions intersect with the ongoing legacies of colonialism and race- based thinking?

• Critically evaluate a large-scale development project. To what extent do these initiatives reflect or perpetuate exploitative relationships?

Case Study 1: South Africa’s Cycle of Poverty

• Poverty in South Africa stems largely from the enduring legacy of colonialism and apartheid policies.

• Poverty indicators are categorised into four dimensions; health, education, standards of living, and economic activity.

• The engagement of the international community focused on multilateral trade and foreign direct investment.

• The inability of the current government to lift South Africa out of poverty is indicative of trends elsewhere in the Global South where inequality is deeply rooted in colonial political and economic systems.

Case Study 2: Images of China’s Belt and Road Initiative

• China is an exception to breaking the cycle of poverty.

• Chinese foreign investment does not replicate North-South, top- down, conditionality-focused aid that enables access to opportunities, but loan repayment raises future debt concerns.

• BRI success depends on policy measures in three categories:- Transparency

  • Country-specific gaps

  • Multilateral cooperation

• Evidence suggests BRI reflects exploitative relationships.

Ch 18 - Essay Prompts

• Discuss the role of intellectual property rights in exacerbating or mitigating issues in terms of global health. How did the actions of ‘improved’ nations impact the health outcomes of those in the Global South?

• Examine the disconnect between the 'naive clinical' position of global health advocacy, and the politicization of provision of healthcare services. Develop a framework that assesses a global health initiative.

Case Study 1: COVID-19

• Health systems worldwide became overwhelmed during the peak of the pandemic. This created the ethical dilemma of which illnesses to treat.

• Interdependence of global health in a globalised world proved to be the Achilles heel as dependency on other nations for healthcare essentials was highlighted.

• Inequality was highlighted when the US and UK prioritised advanced purchase agreements with vaccine manufacturers for themselves.

• The Global North sought protection of intellectual property rights to the detriment of the Global South.

Case Study 2: Health as a Bridge for Peace

• Best predictor of future conflict or disease is a history of each.

• Health work can be mapped onto a conflict analysis model:- Default approach is to ignore a conflict and continue to work.

  • Palliative – humanitarian relief reaches the sick and wounded of conflict.

  • Uses health’s innate values combining altruism and science to ‘transform’ a conflict.

• Nine examples suggested were too local or temporary to have any long-term significance on the course of the underlying conflict.

Ch 19 - Essay Prompts

• Is the extraction of resources a public or private concern? What Global governance Frameworks are appropriate in dealing with extractivism?

Case Study 1: Donald Trump and Climate Denial

• Trump’s influence on global climate politics came from the unilateral decision to leave the Paris Agreement, terminating US participation.

• His belief was that environmental regulations hurt US business and manufacturing and that climate change was overhyped.

• Trump mainstreamed the climate sceptic view creating a countervailing effect to combat climate change domestically and internationally.

• However, his climate denialism did not counter the existing support of the international community to act.

Case Study 2: Governing Extraction

• Extracting resources from the earth has environmental impact beyond the period of operations (polluted rivers, toxic waste).

• These issues are more prevalent in the Global South.

• The disconnect between global corporate governance and local communities creates domestic environmental protection issues.

• States do not always enforce laws evenly. An international framework would set a normative expectation for companies to act responsibly, for short- and long-term impact.

Ch 20 - Essay Prompts

• Discuss the involvement of private corporations in state surveillance activities. How might this relationship impact global power structures and economic disparities?

• Examine the kinetic elements of warfare, to what extent are they analogous in the Cyber domain? Utilize recent cyber incidents to frame your response.

Case Study 1: Harnessing Information for Different Ends

• The use of ‘Pegasus’ software illustrates how governments can use technology to spy on citizens for national security or to reinforce methods of control through repression.

• Benefits of the software are not uniformly experienced by individuals because accessibility is limited to multi-billion- dollar businesses.

• Private companies like Cambridge Analytica also collected data to develop ‘micro-targeted’ political advertisements for Brexit and US elections.

Case Study 2: Cyber Warfare or conflict?

• The US military blocked internet access of a Russian organisation seeking to sow discord in midterm elections.

• The case highlights how the parameters of cyber warfare are still being worked out on the international stage (i.e., definitions of ‘cyber’ not being universal; Russia using ‘information warfare’).

• Both the US and Russia were careful to stay below the ‘act of force’ threshold.

• This conflict shows the need for nations to attain cyber superiority the same way as air and nuclear superiority.