Unit 3&4 Learning and Memory

Learning

Learning is the process through which new information or knowledge is acquired or existing knowledge is modified, leading to changes in behaviour, thinking, or understanding.

three main theories which describes learning process

• Behaviorist

• Cognitive theories

• Social Learning theories.

Behavioural Theory of Learning

Also known as behaviorism, is a psychological theory that focuses on observable behaviours and the relationship between stimuli and responses. It emerged as a dominant school of thought in psychology during the early 20th century, led by prominent figures such as Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner. There are two main classification of the conditioning process, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

Proposed by a Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov. According to him, behavior is learnt by a repetitive association between the response and the stimulus. Classical conditioning is a form of learning.

Conditioned stimulus

Associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus (US) to produce a behavioral response known as a conditioned response (CR).

Operant Conditioning

Developed by B.F. Skinner, who believed that behavior is voluntary and is determined, maintained, and controlled by its consequences. Operant conditioning focuses on using either reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease a behavior. There are three elements that result in the development of a new behavior; these are: Stimulus Situation (the event or object), Behavioral Response to the situation and Consequence of a response.

Cognitive Theory of Learning

Edward Tolman has contributed significantly to the Cognitive Learning Theory, according to him, individuals not only respond to stimuli but also act on beliefs, thoughts, attitudes, feelings and strive towards goals. Cognitive learning theory is a psychological perspective that focuses on how people acquire, organize, and use knowledge.

Cognitive learning theory explores the mental processes that underlie learning. Cognitive learning theory is based on the cognitive model of human behavior, it emphasizes on the free will and positive aspects of human behavior. Cognitive learning theory incorporates social aspects, suggesting that individuals can learn from observing others. Observational learning, or learning through imitation and modelling, is a key element of social cognitive learning.

Prominent cognitive psychologists like Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and Jerome Bruner have contributed significantly to the development and application of cognitive learning theory. This theory has had a profound impact on education, cognitive psychology, and instructional design, shaping how educators approach teaching and learning processes

Social Learning Theory of Learning

Social Learning Theory, developed by Canadian-American psychologist Albert Bandura, is a psychological theory that emphasizes the importance of social interaction and observational learning in the development of behaviours, beliefs, and attitudes. This theory suggests that people learn not only through direct personal experience but also by observing and imitating the actions and behaviours of others.

Social learning theory asserts that learning takes place in two steps:

• person observes how others behave and then forms mental picture in his mind, along with the consequences of that behavior.

• person behaves, what he has learned and see the consequences of it, if it is positive, he will repeat the behavior or will not do it again, in case the consequence is negative.

Key Principles

1. Attention

2. Retention

3. Observational learning

4. Modelling

Memory

Memory refers to what we remember and give human the capability to learn and adopt from past experiences. It is a cognitive process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved in the brain. It involves the ability to retain and recall past experiences, knowledge, skills, and sensory perceptions. Memory is a crucial component of human cognition, as it influences our thoughts, behaviours, and decision-making.

1. Encoding: This is the initial step where information is acquired and converted into a construct that can be stored in memory. It involves processing sensory inputs and transforming them into a form that can be stored, such as converting visual or auditory information into neural codes.

2. Storing: After encoding, the information is stored in the brain for later retrieval. Storage involves placing encoded information in various memory systems, such as sensory memory, short-term memory, or long-term memory, based on factors like importance, repetition, and association.

3. Retrieval: This is the process of accessing and recalling stored information from memory when needed. It involves bringing the stored information into conscious awareness for use in cognitive processes or behaviour

Biological Memory

The hippocampus

A crucial structure located deep within the brain's temporal lobes. It plays a central role in the formation of new memories, particularly episodic and spatial memories. The hippocampus helps consolidate information from short-term memory into long-term memory.

The amygdala

Involved in the processing and storage of emotional memories. It plays a vital role in attaching emotional significance to events, which can enhance memory formation.

Neurons and Synapses:

Neurons, the basic building blocks of the brain, communicate with each other through synapses. Memory formation is associated with changes in synaptic connections, a process known as synaptic plasticity. Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a well-studied form of synaptic plasticity and is believed to be a fundamental mechanism of memory storage.

Neurotransmitters:

Chemical messengers called neurotransmitters, such as glutamate, acetylcholine, and dopamine, play key roles in transmitting signals between neurons during memory formation and retrieval

Theories of Memory

1. . Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin):Proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968, this model suggests that memory consists of three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information flows from sensory memory to STM and then to LTM through processes of attention, encoding, and rehearsal.

2. Dual Coding Theory (Paivio):Proposed by Allan Paivio in 1971, this theory states that information can be stored in memory in two forms: verbal (language-based) and non-verbal (image-based). Dual coding enhances memory because information is encoded using both verbal and visual cues.

3. Information Processing Model (Atkinson and Shiffrin):This model compares human memory to a computer. It involves the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval, like input, processing, and output in a computer system. Information is passed through various stages during processing.

4. Levels of Processing Theory (Craik and Lockhart):

   Proposed by Fergus I.M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972, this theory suggests that the depth of processing (shallow to deep) during encoding affects memory retention. Deeper, meaningful processing leads to better retention compared to shallow, superficial processing

Sensory Memory

Sensory memory is the earliest stage of the memory process and refers to the brief retention of sensory information (sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and tactile sensations) that lasts for a very short duration after the original stimulus is no longer present. Sensory memory acts as a buffer, holding incoming sensory information . There are two main types of sensory memory:

Iconic Memory

Iconic memory is the sensory memory related to visual stimuli. It involves the brief storage and processing of visual information, typically lasting less than a second. Iconic memory allows us to retain a visual image of an object or scene for a very short time, even after the stimulus has been removed.

Echoic Memory

Echoic memory is the sensory memory associated with auditory stimuli. It involves the temporary retention of auditory information, usually lasting a few seconds (around 2 to 4 seconds). Echoic memory helps us retain what we hear for a brief period, enabling comprehension and further processing of auditory input.

Short Term Memory

Short-term memory (STM), also known as working memory, is a system responsible for temporarily holding and processing a limited amount of information over a short duration. It serves as a crucial intermediate stage between sensory memory and long-term memory. STM allows individuals to manipulate and use recently acquired information to perform cognitive tasks, make decisions, and solve problems. The central executive part of the prefrontal cortex at the front of the brain appears to play a fundamental role in short-term /working memory

Some key features of short-term memory:

• Limited Capacity: STM has a limited capacity, typically holding around 5 to 9 items (chunks) of information at a time. This capacity can vary from person to person and can be influenced by factors such as age, cognitive load, and individual differences.

• Limited Duration: STM has a limited duration of approximately 20 to 30 seconds without active rehearsal. Information that is not transferred to long-term memory may fade or decay over time and be lost.

• Encoding and Retrieval: Information in STM is encoded primarily acoustically (based on sound) and semantically (based on meaning). Retrieval from STM is a rapid process and involves bringing the information into conscious awareness for immediate use.

Long Term Memory

Long-term memory is the memory that operates when you recall past events or things that you have learned. It is also the memory responsible for you being able to recognize words and numbers.Long-term memory (LTM) is a stage of the memory process that involves the storage and retrieval of information over a prolonged period, ranging from a few minutes to a lifetime. It's the repository for knowledge, experiences, skills, and information that we accumulate throughout our lives. Long-term memory is characterized by its vast capacity and relatively stable retention of information.

There are two main sub-categories of long-term memory. These are an implicit memory and explicit memory.

Implicit Memory

Sometimes referred to as unconscious memory or automatic memory. Implicit memory relies on various structures of the brain, depending on what type of memories are involved. The main areas of the brain that are associated with implicit memory are the cerebellum and the basal ganglia hemisphere. Implicit store what is learnt, and recall automatically.

Explicit memory.

Explicit Memory is the type of memory responsible for your long-term memories. The main areas of the brain that are responsible for explicit memory are the hippocampus in the temporal lobe and the prefrontal cortex. Explicit is the memory that you use when you learn facts for school or work, as well as the memory you use when you visit a place or have a life event.

Some key features of long-term memory are:

• Vast Capacity: Long-term memory has an enormous capacity to store a vast amount of information. It is believed to be virtually unlimited in its storage potential.

• Long Duration: Information stored in long-term memory can last for a very long time, from days to years to a lifetime. Some memories can be retrieved even after decades.

• Encoding: Encoding in long-term memory involves transforming information from short-term memory into a more permanent and meaningful form that can be stored over a more extended period. This process often involves semantic encoding, where information is related to existing knowledge and concepts.

• Organization and Retrieval: Information in long-term memory is organized and stored based on meaningful connections and associations, forming a complex network of interrelated concepts. Retrieval involves accessing this network and bringing specific information into conscious awareness.

Forgetting

Forgetting, in the context of memory, refers to the inability to retrieve or recall previously stored information or experiences. It is a natural and common phenomenon that occurs over time and can be influenced by various factors. Understanding the reasons for forgetting can shed light on how memory operates and how we can improve memory retention.

Here are some common reasons for forgetting.

Interference:

• Proactive Interference: Previously learned information interferes with the ability to remember new information. For example, an old phone number interferes with remembering a new number.

• Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information. For example, a new password makes it difficult to recall an old password.

. Encoding Failure:

• Information was never properly encoded into long-term memory in the first place, making it unavailable for later retrieval. Factors such as lack of attention, shallow processing, or distractions can contribute to encoding failure.

Amnesia:

• Amnesia is a condition characterized by significant memory loss due to brain injury, trauma, or neurological disorders. It can affect short-term or long-term memory or both.