cell energetics chicken butt

1. Acetyl CoA – Acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) is a molecule involved in metabolism, particularly in the citric acid cycle where it contributes to the production of energy. It forms when pyruvate from glycolysis is oxidized and combined with coenzyme A.

2. Activation Energy – Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to occur. Enzymes help lower activation energy, making reactions proceed more efficiently.

3. Active Site – The active site of an enzyme is the specific region where the substrate binds and undergoes a chemical reaction. It has a unique shape that complements the substrate, ensuring specificity in enzyme function.

4. ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) – ADP is a nucleotide that plays a key role in cellular energy transfer. It is converted to ATP by the addition of a phosphate group during cellular respiration.

5. Aerobic Respiration – Aerobic respiration is a metabolic process in which cells use oxygen to convert glucose into ATP, releasing carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. This process occurs in the mitochondria and provides a high yield of energy.

6. Alcohol Fermentation – Alcohol fermentation is a type of anaerobic respiration in which glucose is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide, commonly performed by yeast and some bacteria. This process is used in brewing, winemaking, and biofuel production.

7. Allosteric Regulation – Allosteric regulation is a process in which a molecule binds to an enzyme at a site other than the active site, causing a change in its shape and function. This mechanism is used to regulate metabolic pathways by either activating or inhibiting enzyme activity.

8. Anabolic Pathway – An anabolic pathway is a metabolic route that builds complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy input. Examples include protein synthesis and photosynthesis.

9. Anaerobic Respiration – Anaerobic respiration is the process by which cells generate ATP without oxygen, often producing lactic acid or ethanol as byproducts. It is less efficient than aerobic respiration but allows organisms to survive in oxygen-poor environments.

10. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) – ATP is the primary energy carrier in cells, providing energy for various biological processes. It releases energy when its phosphate bonds are broken, converting it into ADP.

11. ATP Hydrolysis – ATP hydrolysis is the chemical reaction in which ATP is broken down into ADP and an inorganic phosphate, releasing energy. This reaction powers cellular activities such as muscle contraction and active transport.

12. ATP Synthase – ATP synthase is an enzyme found in mitochondria and chloroplasts that synthesizes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate during oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation. It plays a crucial role in cellular energy production.

13. Autotrophs – Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food using light (photoautotrophs) or chemical energy (chemoautotrophs). Plants, algae, and some bacteria are autotrophs that perform photosynthesis.

14. C3 Plants – C3 plants use the Calvin cycle for carbon fixation, where carbon dioxide is directly converted into a three-carbon compound. These plants thrive in cool, moist environments but are less efficient in hot, dry conditions.

15. C4 Plants – C4 plants have a modified photosynthetic pathway that minimizes photorespiration by fixing carbon dioxide into a four-carbon compound. They are more efficient in hot, dry environments than C3 plants.

16. Calvin Cycle – The Calvin cycle is the set of light-independent reactions in photosynthesis that convert carbon dioxide into glucose. It occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts and is driven by ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions.

17. CAM Plants – CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) plants open their stomata at night to minimize water loss, storing carbon dioxide as organic acids for use in photosynthesis during the day. Examples include cacti and succulents.

18. Carbon Cycle – The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical process through which carbon is exchanged between the atmosphere, organisms, and the Earth. It involves processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition.

19. Carbon Fixation – Carbon fixation is the process of incorporating inorganic carbon dioxide into organic molecules during photosynthesis. The Calvin cycle is a major pathway for carbon fixation.

20. Carotenoids – Carotenoids are pigments found in plants, algae, and some bacteria that absorb light energy for photosynthesis and provide photoprotection. They give fruits and vegetables their yellow, orange, and red colors.

21. Catabolic Pathway – A catabolic pathway is a metabolic process that breaks down complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy. Examples include glycolysis and cellular respiration.

22. Catalysis – Catalysis is the process by which a substance (a catalyst) speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed. Enzymes act as biological catalysts in metabolic reactions.

23. Catalyst – A catalyst is a substance that lowers the activation energy of a reaction, increasing its speed without being permanently altered. In biological systems, enzymes serve as catalysts.

24. Cellular Respiration – Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into ATP, using oxygen in aerobic respiration or alternative pathways in anaerobic respiration. This process includes glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

25. Chemical Energy – Chemical energy is stored in the bonds of molecules and is released during chemical reactions, such as the breakdown of glucose in cellular respiration. It is a form of potential energy used to power cellular processes.

26. Chemiosmosis – Chemiosmosis is the process by which ATP is produced using the movement of hydrogen ions (protons) across a membrane during cellular respiration and photosynthesis. This occurs in the mitochondria and chloroplasts via ATP synthase.

27. Chemoautotrophs – Chemoautotrophs are organisms that obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic substances, such as sulfur or iron, rather than using sunlight. Examples include certain bacteria and archaea that thrive in extreme environments.

28. Chemosynthesis – Chemosynthesis is the process by which certain organisms produce organic molecules using chemical energy instead of light energy. This occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal vents and sulfur-rich environments.

29. Chlorophyll – Chlorophyll is the green pigment in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis. It plays a crucial role in converting light into chemical energy.

30. Chlorophyll a – Chlorophyll a is the primary pigment involved in photosynthesis, absorbing mostly blue-violet and red light while reflecting green. It directly participates in the light-dependent reactions.

31. Chlorophyll b – Chlorophyll b is an accessory pigment that absorbs additional wavelengths of light and transfers energy to chlorophyll a. It helps broaden the spectrum of light that plants can use for photosynthesis.

32. Chloroplast – Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and algae where photosynthesis occurs. They contain chlorophyll and other pigments that capture light energy.

33. Citric Acid Cycle / Krebs Cycle – The citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that break down acetyl CoA to produce ATP, NADH, and FADH₂. It is a key step in cellular respiration.

34. Coenzymes – Coenzymes are organic molecules that assist enzymes in catalyzing reactions, often by transferring electrons or chemical groups. Examples include NAD+, FAD, and Coenzyme A.

35. Competitive Inhibitors – Competitive inhibitors are molecules that bind to the active site of an enzyme, blocking the substrate from attaching and slowing down the reaction. This type of inhibition can often be reversed by increasing substrate concentration.

36. Cristae – Cristae are the folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane that increase surface area for ATP production. They house the proteins involved in the electron transport chain.

37. Cyclic Electron Flow – Cyclic electron flow is a process in photosynthesis where electrons cycle back to photosystem I, generating ATP without producing NADPH. It helps balance ATP and NADPH production.

38. Cytochromes – Cytochromes are proteins involved in the electron transport chain that transfer electrons and play a role in ATP synthesis. They contain heme groups that facilitate redox reactions.

39. Decomposition – Decomposition is the breakdown of organic matter into simpler substances by decomposers such as bacteria and fungi. It recycles nutrients back into the ecosystem.

40. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) – Dissolved oxygen refers to the amount of oxygen available in water, which is essential for aquatic organisms. Its levels can be influenced by temperature, photosynthesis, and pollution.

41. Ectotherm – Ectotherms are organisms that rely on external environmental heat sources to regulate their body temperature. Examples include reptiles and amphibians.

42. Electron Transport Chains – The electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane that transfer electrons and produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.

43. Endergonic Reaction – An endergonic reaction is a chemical reaction that requires an input of energy to proceed. Photosynthesis is an example, as it absorbs light energy to build glucose molecules.

44. Endotherm – Endotherms are organisms that generate and regulate their own body heat through metabolism. Examples include mammals and birds.

45. Energy Coupling – Energy coupling is the process by which energy released from an exergonic reaction (such as ATP hydrolysis) is used to drive an endergonic reaction.

46. Entropy – Entropy is a measure of disorder or randomness in a system. According to the second law of thermodynamics, entropy tends to increase over time.

47. Enzyme – An enzyme is a biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy. Most enzymes are proteins that are highly specific to their substrates.

48. Enzyme Inhibitors – Enzyme inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity by binding to the enzyme, either at the active site (competitive inhibitors) or elsewhere (noncompetitive inhibitors).

49. Enzyme-Substrate Complex – The enzyme-substrate complex is the temporary binding of an enzyme and its substrate during a reaction. This interaction facilitates the conversion of the substrate into the product.

50. Eutrophication – Eutrophication is the excessive enrichment of water bodies with nutrients, leading to algal blooms and oxygen depletion. It is often caused by agricultural runoff and pollution.

51. Exergonic Reaction – An exergonic reaction is a chemical reaction that releases energy. Cellular respiration is an example, as it breaks down glucose to produce ATP.

52. FADH2 – FADH₂ is an energy carrier molecule produced in the citric acid cycle. It donates electrons to the electron transport chain to help generate ATP.

53. Feedback Inhibition – Feedback inhibition is a regulatory mechanism in which the product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an enzyme earlier in the pathway, preventing overproduction.

54. Fermentation – Fermentation is an anaerobic process in which cells convert glucose into ATP without oxygen. It results in byproducts such as lactic acid or ethanol.

55. First Law of Thermodynamics – The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed. It governs all energy changes in biological systems.

56. Homeostasis – Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes. It involves regulation of temperature, pH, and other factors.

57. Glycolysis – Glycolysis is the first step of cellular respiration, where glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.

58. Grana – Grana are stacks of thylakoids within the chloroplast where the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur.

59. Hibernation – Hibernation is a state of reduced metabolic activity and lowered body temperature that some animals enter during the winter to conserve energy.

60. Induced Fit – The induced fit model describes how enzymes change shape slightly to accommodate the binding of their specific substrate, enhancing catalysis.

61. Irreversible Inhibitors – Irreversible inhibitors permanently disable an enzyme by binding covalently to its active site or another critical region, preventing substrate binding.

62. Lactic Acid Fermentation – Lactic acid fermentation is an anaerobic process in which glucose is converted into ATP and lactic acid. It occurs in muscle cells during intense exercise.

63. Light Reactions – The light reactions are the first stage of photosynthesis, where light energy is captured and converted into ATP and NADPH.

64. Light-Dependent Reactions – Light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes and use light energy to produce ATP and NADPH.

65. Light-Independent Reactions – Light-independent reactions, also known as the Calvin cycle, use ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide into glucose.

66. Matrix – The matrix is the fluid-filled interior of the mitochondrion where the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) takes place. It contains enzymes, mitochondrial DNA, and ribosomes.

67. Mesophyll – Mesophyll is the tissue in plant leaves where most photosynthesis occurs. It contains many chloroplasts and is divided into palisade and spongy layers.

68. Metabolic Pathway – A metabolic pathway is a sequence of chemical reactions occurring in a cell, catalyzed by enzymes, to produce a specific product or energy. Examples include glycolysis and the Calvin cycle.

69. Metabolic Rate – Metabolic rate is the rate at which an organism converts energy from food into usable biological energy. It varies based on factors such as body size, activity level, and temperature regulation.

70. Metabolism – Metabolism refers to all biochemical reactions within a living organism, including anabolic (building) and catabolic (breaking down) pathways.

71. Mitochondria – Mitochondria are the organelles known as the “powerhouses” of the cell, where ATP is produced through aerobic respiration. They contain their own DNA and ribosomes.

72. NADH – NADH is an electron carrier molecule produced during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. It donates electrons to the electron transport chain to generate ATP.

73. NADP+ – NADP+ is an electron carrier in photosynthesis that accepts electrons to become NADPH, which is used in the Calvin cycle to help form glucose.

74. NADPH – NADPH is an energy-rich molecule that provides the reducing power for the Calvin cycle in photosynthesis. It is produced in the light-dependent reactions.

75. Negative Feedback Loop – A negative feedback loop is a regulatory mechanism in which a system responds to a stimulus by reversing the initial change, maintaining homeostasis. An example is blood sugar regulation by insulin.

76. Noncompetitive Inhibitors – Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to an enzyme at a site other than the active site, altering its shape and reducing its activity without directly competing with the substrate.

77. Noncyclic Electron Flow – Noncyclic electron flow is the main pathway of electron movement in photosynthesis, generating ATP and NADPH by transferring electrons from water through photosystems I and II.

78. Oxidation – Oxidation is the loss of electrons from a molecule during a chemical reaction. It often occurs alongside reduction (as in redox reactions).

79. Oxidative Phosphorylation – Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage of cellular respiration, where ATP is produced using energy from electrons transferred through the electron transport chain.

80. Phosphorylated – A phosphorylated molecule has gained a phosphate group, which often makes it more reactive and plays a role in energy transfer in cells.

81. Phosphorylation – Phosphorylation is the process of adding a phosphate group to a molecule, often from ATP, to activate or regulate proteins and metabolic pathways.

82. Photoautotrophs – Photoautotrophs are organisms that use sunlight to synthesize organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water through photosynthesis. Examples include plants and algae.

83. Photophosphorylation – Photophosphorylation is the process of ATP production using energy from light, occurring during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

84. Photorespiration – Photorespiration is a process in which the enzyme Rubisco fixes oxygen instead of carbon dioxide, leading to energy loss in C3 plants under high temperatures.

85. Photosynthesis – Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy, producing glucose and oxygen.

86. Photosystem I – Photosystem I is one of the two photosystems in the thylakoid membrane that absorbs light energy to drive the production of NADPH.

87. Photosystem II – Photosystem II is the first protein complex in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, where water is split to release oxygen and electrons for ATP production.

88. Positive Feedback Loop – A positive feedback loop is a regulatory mechanism in which a change is amplified rather than reversed, often leading to rapid physiological responses, such as childbirth contractions.

89. Primary Electron Acceptor – A primary electron acceptor is a molecule in the electron transport chain that receives high-energy electrons from chlorophyll after light absorption in photosynthesis.

90. Pyruvate – Pyruvate is the three-carbon end product of glycolysis that enters the mitochondria for further processing in aerobic respiration or fermentation.

91. Reaction Center – The reaction center is a specialized complex in photosystems where excited electrons are transferred to the primary electron acceptor during photosynthesis.

92. Reduction – Reduction is the gain of electrons in a chemical reaction, often occurring alongside oxidation in redox reactions.

93. Reversible Inhibitors – Reversible inhibitors temporarily bind to enzymes, reducing their activity, but can be removed, allowing the enzyme to function normally again.

94. Rubisco – Rubisco (Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) is the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle by fixing carbon dioxide into organic molecules.

95. Second Law of Thermodynamics – The second law of thermodynamics states that energy transfer increases entropy (disorder) in the universe, meaning some energy is always lost as heat.

96. Stomata – Stomata are tiny pores on the surface of leaves that regulate gas exchange, allowing carbon dioxide to enter and oxygen and water vapor to exit.

97. Stroma – The stroma is the fluid-filled space in the chloroplast where the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions) takes place.

98. Substrate – A substrate is the reactant in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction that binds to the enzyme’s active site and undergoes a chemical transformation.

99. Thylakoids – Thylakoids are membrane-bound structures within chloroplasts where the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur, forming stacks called grana.

100. Torpor – Torpor is a state of decreased physiological activity in animals, characterized by a temporary drop in metabolic rate and body temperature to conserve energy.

101. Vasoconstriction – Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of blood vessels, which reduces blood flow and heat loss. It helps organisms conserve body heat in cold conditions.

102. Vasodilation – Vasodilation is the widening of blood vessels, increasing blood flow and promoting heat loss to cool the body in warm conditions.