Foundation of Inclusive and Special Education (Review)

Foundation and core concepts of Inclusive Education

• Inclusive education definition: an ongoing process aimed at offering quality education for all while respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities, characteristics and learning expectations of students and communities, eliminating all forms of discrimination in the learning environment.

• Purpose: place the right to education into action by reaching out to all learners, respecting diversity, and removing discrimination.

• Need for change: current strategies and programmes have been insufficient to address inequalities and exclusion in education.

• Integrated approach required to address inequalities and exclusion:

  • Put in place appropriate legal frameworks, policies and strategies

  • Redesign curriculum and teaching/learning methods

  • Ensure reforms across formal and non-formal education, including organization, structure, legal, financing, administration, textbooks, curriculum, assessment, and infrastructure

  • Full participation and involvement of learners, families and communities

• UNESCO role in inclusive education:

  • Advocates and shares knowledge

  • Provides technical support

  • Informs international dialogue

  • Inclusive education must be a fundamental principle and cross-cutting approach in all UNESCO education work

• International and normative foundations:

  • Inclusive education aligns with rights-based language in international instruments promoting the right to education

  • UNESCO Constitution emphasizes the right to education and human development

  • International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Article 13) emphasizes the full development of the human personality and participation in society

• Core aims of inclusive education:

  • Fulfill everyone’s right to education

  • Ensure full and equal opportunities for education for all

  • Enable participation in society and reduce/eliminate exclusion in education across dimensions

• Transformation required across education systems:

  • Across all elements and processes: organization and structure, legal/financing/administration frameworks, teachers, textbooks, curriculum, assessment, teaching/learning processes, and infrastructure

• Key barriers to progress (top eight):
  1) lack of endorsement and implementation of human rights instruments; 2) weak political will; 3) inadequate knowledge of magnitude, causes, and effects of exclusion; 4) insufficient financial resources and inefficient use of resources; 5) inadequate attention to learning needs of marginalized/excluded learners; 6) gap between principles adopted and prescribed curriculum; 7) absence of commitment to overcoming gender disparities; 8) lack of appreciation for diversity and negative attitudes toward cultural, social, economic, and gender differences

• Foundational definitions and cross-references:

  • Inclusive education as a cross-cutting UNESCO principle (per UNESCO’s framing)

  • Inclusive education as a pathway to the right to education and to sustainable development

• Key data and context

  • Global and national disability statistics appear across the material to motivate inclusive education efforts (see references in pages 5–7 for explicit figures)

International frameworks, declarations, and UNESCO priorities

• SDG 4 and inclusion:

  • SDG 4 reinforces the importance of inclusive education and equity in education for all children, including those with perceived differences

  • UNESCO emphasizes turning right to education principles into action and removing barriers to participation for girls, out-of-school children, and marginalized groups (e.g., Roma, people with disabilities, indigenous peoples)

• UNESCO priorities (2008–2013 Medium-Term Strategy):

  • Focus on bringing benefits of education to the poor, the excluded, indigenous people, marginalized groups, and those with special needs

• United Nations (MDG) Summit 2010 call:

  • Develop and operationalize inclusive education as part of addressing exclusion and inequalities

• Core UNESCO messages and implications:

  • Inclusion is an imperative for UNESCO and must be fundamental and cross-cutting across UNESCO’s education work

  • Inclusion as a framework to advance Education for All (EFA) by translating right-to-education principles into concrete policies and actions

• Policy framing outcomes

  • The objective is to translate the right to education into actionable policies, programs, and practices that reduce barriers to participation and learning

• Key themes in inclusion implementation (Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Timor-Leste, Philippines analysis):

  • Facilities, teacher competency, and parental attitudes are critical policy implementation themes

  • Five UNESCO priority clusters guide future directions and advocacy messages

• Conceptual note on inclusion and human rights

  • Inclusive education is about equal involvement of individuals with disabilities in typical education, while allowing for necessary accommodations and supports where needed

The Philippines: experience, policy landscape, and SPED system

• National progression toward inclusive education

  • The Philippines has sought to implement inclusive education through a mix of international obligations (SDGs, Salamanca, CRPD) and national laws and policies

• Key policy anchor: Department of Education (DepEd) DO No. 26, s. 1997

  • Institutionalization of SPED programs in all schools

  • Each division to organize at least one SPED Center

  • National scope of SPED centers: 648 SPED centers and regular schools offering SPED, with 471 centers serving elementary students and 177 serving high school students (Kenneth & Sales, 2019)

• SPED program delivery modalities (typologies):

  • Self-contained / Special Class: separate class for one type of exceptionality (moderate to severe disabilities)

  • Itinerant Teaching: traveling teacher provides direct/consultative services at other schools or at home

  • Resource Room: designated space for specialized equipment and services

  • Pull-out: regular class student visits resource room for specialized instruction

  • Integration / Mainstreaming: regular class with support services

  • Inclusion: all children with disabilities receive education within the regular classroom

• Core components in SPED delivery (a–e):
  a) Child Find: locating children with special needs and encouraging enrollment in SPED centers/schools near home
  b) Assessment: ongoing evaluation of strengths/weaknesses through formal/informal tools for placement
  c) Program Options: services in regular schools with or without trained SPED teachers; access to SPED centers or SPED-trained teachers
  d) Curriculum Modifications: rethinking and developing teaching-learning practices
  e) Parental Involvement: vital role in academic, moral, and spiritual development; parental engagement in performance monitoring, volunteering, and supporting other parents

• SPED concepts and terminologies (as defined in the Philippine framework)

  • Educational placement options and adaptive skills focus (adaptive/functional skills for daily living)

• Contextual legal and policy foundations supporting SPED

  • Magna Carta for Persons with Disabilities (RA 7277) – amended to RA 10754; emphasizes equal access to education and appropriate supports

  • The Philippine Constitution (1987) Article XIV: rights to education, and steps to ensure accessibility and inclusiveness

  • Governance of Basic Education Act (RA 9155, 2001) – ALS; out-of-school youth and adults access basic education

  • Enhanced Basic Education Act (RA 10533, 2013) – inclusive education as imperative; IRR requires addressing physical, intellectual, psychological, and cultural needs; Section 8 calls for SPED-related programs

  • Other acts promoting inclusivity, gender equity, Indigenous Peoples’ rights, juvenile justice, domestic workers’ education, open high school, and disability-related supports

• The broader policy ecology around inclusive education includes constitutional guarantees, sectoral laws, and international commitments integrated into the K–12 framework

Core laws, mandates, and policy instruments related to inclusive education (Philippines)

• 1987 Philippine Constitution (Article XIV, Sections 1–2)

  • Right to quality education at all levels

  • State to establish, maintain, and support an integrated education system relevant to societal needs

  • Promote non-formal, informal, indigenous learning systems; provide skills training for adults, the disabled, and out-of-school youth

• RA 10533 (Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013) and IRR

  • Inclusiveness of enhanced basic education

  • Programs addressing physical, intellectual, psycho-social, and cultural needs

  • Section 8: programs for learners with disabilities (and other diverse needs)

• RA 9155 (Governance of Basic Education Act, 2001)

  • Establishes ALS (Alternative Learning System) for out-of-school youth and adults

• RA 9710 (Magna Carta of Women; amended by RA 10361 and related IRR)

  • Equal access and eliminate discrimination in education, scholarships, and training; gender-sensitive materials and capacity building

• RA 10157 (Kindergarten Education Act, 2012)

  • Universal access to kindergarten education; early development foundations for elementary schooling

• RA 8371 (Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act, 1997)

  • Equal access to education; education in own language and culturally appropriate approaches; IPs’ right to sustain educational systems they control

• RA 9344 (Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act, 2006)

  • Collaboration with families and communities for prevention and rehabilitation of children in conflict with the law

• RA 9442 (Amendment of RA 7277, Magna Carta for Disabled Persons, 2007)

  • Expanded educational assistance to persons with disabilities (PWDs) across levels, including scholarships and materials

• RA 10665 (Open High School System Act, 2015)

  • Broadens access to high-quality education via an alternative secondary program; addresses geographic and socioeconomic barriers

• RA 10361 (Domestic Workers Act, Batas Kasambahay, 2013)

  • Ensures opportunities for educational attainment for domestic workers, including continued access to ALS

• RA 7610 (Special Protection Against Abuse, Exploitation, and Discrimination Act, 1992)

  • Protects children from abuse and discrimination; supports prevention and intervention programs

• UNCRPD (United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2006)

  • Obliges states to ensure full realization of human rights for persons with disabilities without discrimination; Article 24 on education; General Comment 4 on inclusive education (CRPD 2016)

• SDG 4 (Sustainable Development Goal 4)

  • Emphasizes inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning opportunities for all; supports reduction of disparities

• Incheon Strategy to Make Right Real for Persons with Disabilities (2013–2022)

  • Focus on early intervention and equitable access to quality primary and secondary education; governments must ensure access

• ICF (International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health) by WHO (2002; updated 2017)

  • Disability arises from the interaction between health conditions and environmental factors; emphasis on accessibility and contextual supports

• Accessibility and accommodations concepts

  • Accessibility: equal access to physical environments, transportation, information, technologies, and services

  • Accommodations: changes to learning environments, materials, curriculum formats to enable learning

• Assessment and educational planning concepts

  • Continuous assessment to inform planning; multi-disciplinary approaches; IEPs

Key definitions and glossary (selected terms)

• Accessibility: measures to ensure equal access to physical environments and information for persons with disabilities (UNCRPD, Article 9)

• Accommodations: actions taken to adapt learning environments, materials, curriculum formats to enable learning

• Educational Placement: appropriate learning environment based on assessment results (e.g., mainstream, resource room, self-contained, home, hospital)

• Educational Programs and Services: interventions and services to ensure equal opportunity for quality basic education

• Disadvantaged learners: marginalized learners requiring targeted basic education programs

• General Education Teacher: licensed teacher handling both typically developing learners and learners with disabilities in inclusive classrooms

• Inclusive Education: process of addressing diversity, moving toward full participation and achievement for all, with accommodations and adaptations and a shared responsibility across the state

• Inclusive Learning Resource Center (ILRC): center with improved infrastructure and resources to support inclusive education and provide assessment tools, and interdisciplinary support

• Individualized Education Plan (IEP): systematic, developmental educational plan to meet a learner’s needs and ensure mastery of target skills

• Learner vs Learners with Disabilities (LWDs): definition of learners and a subset with long-term disabilities that impact participation

• Multi-disciplinary Team: professionals supporting learners, developing and implementing IEPs with collaborative services

• Resource Room: space in schools for remedial interventions and assistive services

• SPED (Special Education): educational programs/services designed to address the needs of learners with disabilities through individualized planning

• Support Services: sign language interpretation, speech therapy, physical therapy, assessment, occupational therapy, behavioral therapy, etc.

• Transition Program: program promoting education equity and supports to help learners with disabilities become functional and productive citizens

• Typically Developing Learners: learners in general education classrooms who are at pace with age-expected development

Core concepts: curriculum, assessment, and inclusion in practice

• Curriculum Adaptation and Modifications:

  • Curriculum Adaptation: adjusting delivery of K–12 curriculum through accommodations/modifications to meet learners’ needs

  • Modifications: changes in content to align with learners’ comprehension levels (as suitable for learners who cannot fully grasp the content)

• Curriculum and learning environments must be inclusive by design, enabling participation and achievement for all learners

• Assessment practices should identify strengths/limitations to guide placement and supports; continuous assessment informs IEP development and service planning

• Inclusion as a process includes:

  • Providing access to regular classrooms with appropriate supports

  • Offering individualized accommodations and supports to ensure meaningful participation

  • Ensuring schools and communities are responsive to diverse learner needs

Program delivery modalities for LWDs

• Four delivery modalities (and combinations):
  1) School-Based: instruction within school, led by SPED and/or general education teachers
  2) Community-Based: instruction in community facilities (e.g., Barangay halls, community centers) led by SPED teachers or trained volunteers
  3) Hospital-Based: instruction within hospital settings under medical supervision
  4) Home-Based: instruction at home or in care facilities with family involvement and/or volunteers

• IDEA framework (U.S.) and six principles (to compare with local practices):

  • Principle 1: Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)

  • Principle 2: Appropriate Evaluation

  • Principle 3: Individualized Education Program (IEP)

  • Principle 4: Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

  • Principle 5: Parent and student participation in decision-making

  • Principle 6: Procedural Safeguards

• Six Pillars of IDEA (core elements):

  • FAPE, Appropriate Evaluation, IEP, LRE, Parent/Student Participation, Procedural Safeguards

• Practical implications for the Philippines: aligned to ensure equitable access to education for LWDs across placement options, supports, and transition planning

Theoretical foundations and the psychology of learning (Piaget, Bandura, Vygotsky)

• Jean Piaget (Swiss psychologist): cognitive development proceeds through four stages and involves active construction by the child; stages reflect qualitative differences, not just speed

  • Sensorimotor (Birth–2): learning through sensory/motor interaction

  • Preoperational (2–7): language and symbolic thinking emerge

  • Concrete Operational (7–11): logical thinking about concrete events

  • Formal Operational (12+): abstract reasoning

  • Key idea: children are active learners, constructing knowledge by interacting with the world

• Albert Bandura (Canada): social cognitive theory; self-efficacy; learning through observation, imitation, and modeling; Bobo doll experiments highlighted observational learning

  • Learning is influenced by attention, motivation, attitudes, and emotions

  • Learning occurs by observing rewards/punishments of others

• Lev Vygotsky (Russia): sociocultural theory; social interaction and culture critically shape learning

  • Scaffolding: support provided by more knowledgeable others to help learners achieve beyond their current level

  • Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with guidance

  • Three concentric circles visualization of ZPD: inside = what learner can do alone; middle = with help; outside = not yet possible even with help

• Situated Learning Theory (Lave & Wenger): learning occurs through authentic activities in real-life contexts; knowledge is constructed through social participation and practice

  • Examples: field trips, internships, labs, workshops, service learning

  • Emphasizes learning in context and collaborative problem solving

Psychological bases for inclusive education: equality, equity, and rights

• The Inclusion mindset: building relationships where differences are welcomed and all benefit

• Equality vs. Equity:

  • Equality: giving everyone the same resources/opportunities

  • Equity: allocating resources to achieve fair outcomes, recognizing differing needs and circumstances

  • Why equity matters: laws and policies aiming for fairness may require different treatments to reach equal outcomes

• Historical/sociological bases for inclusive education:

  • 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC): guarantees child rights as universal and essential

  • CRC has been the most widely ratified human rights treaty; aims to promote child welfare globally

• The developmental trajectory of inclusive education in practice:

  • Education for the disabled has progressed through isolation, integration, and inclusion; developing contexts may choose to advance directly to inclusion with appropriate supports

UNESCO, EFA, and the broader history of inclusive education

• UNESCO’s historical development and mission in education:

  • 1942: Conference of Allied Ministers of Education (CAME) amid WWII

  • 1945: Establishment of UNESCO to promote culture of peace and global education collaboration

  • Early work focused on rebuilding education systems and fostering international cooperation

• Education for All (EFA) movement:

  • Launched in 1990 at the World Conference on Education for All; aimed to universalize primary education and reduce illiteracy by 2015

  • Dakar Framework for Action (2000) reaffirmed commitments and broadened goals to quality education for all

• K–12 and inclusive education policy landscape:

  • The 2010s saw a shift toward inclusive education within national education systems, including K–12 policy reforms in many countries

  • Inclusion is framed as a policy objective that requires systemic alignment across governance, curriculum, teacher development, assessment, and resource allocation

• Key international instruments guiding inclusive education:

  • UDHR (1948): right to education as a fundamental human right

  • Salamanca Statement (1994): schools should accommodate all children regardless of conditions

  • UNCRPD (2006): education rights for persons with disabilities; Article 24 emphasizes inclusive education with equal opportunities

  • Education 2030 Framework for Action: mobilizes SDG 4 and related commitments for inclusive, equitable, quality education

• Education for All (EFA) and global commitments:

  • EFA movement as a driver for universal basic education and the inclusion of learners with diverse needs

The Philippine policy framework: linking international commitments to national law

• International and standard-setting instruments cited in policy:

  • CRC, Salamanca, UNCRPD, Indigenous peoples’ rights, and education-for-all language

  • Education 2030 and SDG 4 alignment

• Philippine legal mandates for inclusive education (selected highlights):

  • 1987 Constitution, Article XIV: rights to education; state responsibilities to establish accessible and inclusive education systems

  • RA 10533 (Enhanced Basic Education Act, 2013) and IRR: inclusiveness across physical, intellectual, psychosocial, and cultural needs; SPED-specific provisions

  • RA 9710 (Magna Carta of Women) and IRR: gender-equitable access and development in education

  • RA 10157 (Kindergarten Education Act, 2012): mandatory kindergarten access

  • RA 9155 (ALS Act, 2001): out-of-school youth and adults’ basic education

  • RA 8371 (IPRA, 1997): education access in IP communities, language and culture considerations

  • RA 9344 (Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act, 2006): education in rehabilitation and reintegration

  • RA 9442 (PWDs Magna Carta amendments, 2007): expanded educational assistance for PWDs across education levels

  • RA 10665 (Open High School System Act, 2015): expanding access to secondary education through an ALS-like system

  • RA 10361 (Domestic Workers Act, 2013): rights to basic education access for workers’ dependents and related ALS provisions

  • RA 7610 (Special Protection Against Abuse, Exploitation, and Discrimination Act, 1992): child protection and education equity

• Policy framing for inclusion within K–12: the policy framework emphasizes learner-centered, context-responsive programs and institutional sensitivity to diversity, with a focus on inclusive education as a core programmatic lens

• The Education for All and SDGs emphasis in the Philippine context:

  • National policies align with SDG 4’s call for inclusive, equitable, quality education and lifelong learning opportunities for all

  • Emphasis on overcoming barriers for marginalized groups (e.g., girls, out-of-school children, persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples, and minority communities)

Key terms and governance: glossary, concepts, and practical implications

• General terms:

  • Accessibility, accommodations, and inclusive education as core operating concepts

  • Intervention design: IEPs, ILRCs, and multidisciplinary teams for planning and delivering supports

  • Educational placement decisions rely on comprehensive assessments and aligned supports

• Systemic elements of inclusion:

  • Official guidelines and standards across multiple laws ensure alignment of school policies, teacher training, curriculum design, and resource allocation with inclusive goals

  • Implementation requires cross-sector collaboration (education, health, social protection, indigenous rights, gender and development, etc.)

• Practical implications for educators and schools:

  • Develop and implement IEPs with involvement of families and multidisciplinary teams

  • Use multiple delivery modalities to reach diverse learners

  • Establish and maintain ILRCs as hubs for inclusive resources, assessments, and professional support

  • Ensure accessibility features and assistive technologies are available to learners

Mnemonics, country references, and practical takeaways

• MNEMONIC: MaBuTI Pa (Malaysia, Brunei, Timor-Leste, Indonesia, Philippines) – a mnemonic used to recall regional focus groups involved in inclusive education discourse

• Practical takeaway: The Philippines’ inclusive education framework relies on a layered set of instruments (international commitments, national laws, and school-level practice) to deliver a rights-based, equitable system for all learners

• Core message across pages: Inclusive education is a universal right requiring systemic transformation, strong policy foundations, and active participation from learners, families, teachers, and communities

Quick reference: key data, dates, and formulas to memorize

• Global disability prevalence referenced: ~15 ext{ }egin{matrix} ext{ extpercent}
  ext{}
  ext{of the world’s population}
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  ext{(WHO/World Bank 2011)}

• Philippines disability context: ~15 ext{ million} of the population with disabilities; about 3.3 ext{ million}$$ in schools (UNICEF 2016)

• SPED infrastructure in the Philippines (DepEd DO No. 26, s. 1997): 648 SPED centers (471 elementary, 177 high school)

• Core legal anchors and citations to memorize (selected):

  • UDHR Article 26: right to education (education as a universal right)

  • CRC Article 28: right to education for every child, without discrimination

  • Salamanca Statement (1994): schools should accommodate all children regardless of conditions

  • UNCRPD Article 24: inclusive education; education without discrimination and with equal opportunity

  • Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA) Article II, Section 2: IPs’ access to education in own language and cultural context

  • EFA/Dakar commitments: global movement toward universal basic education and equity

• Key laws (selected): RA 10533 (2013), RA 9710 (2009/2016 amendments), RA 10157 (2012), RA 8371 (1997), RA 9155 (2001), RA 9344 (2006), RA 9442 (2007), RA 10665 (2015), RA 10361 (2013), RA 7610 (1992)