Chapter 17 Outline

Chapter Overview

• The Enlightenment: A movement promoting literacy, economic improvement, and political reform in European society.

• Influenced contemporary Western political and economic thought, with some historians suggesting the Enlightenment process continues today.

• Rooted in the Scientific Revolution, it contested traditional intellectual and theological authorities.

• Enlightenment thinkers believed in the potential to improve society and nature using rational methods.

• Advocacy for agricultural improvement, commercial society, and innovative practices underpinned modern European development.

• Politically, the movement influenced rulers practicing enlightened absolutism in Eastern and Central Europe.

Formative Influences of the Enlightenment

Section Overview

• Key factors fostering Enlightenment ideas:

  • Newtonian worldview

  • Political stability and commercial prosperity in Great Britain after 1688

  • Demand for reforms following the wars of Louis XIV

  • Rise of a print culture

Ideas of Newton and Locke

Isaac Newton

• Achievements in science challenged ancient and medieval Christian misconceptions about nature.

• Defined nature as a pattern of mathematical and mechanical rationality.

• Inspired the belief that rational organization should also apply to society.

• Advocated empirical experience as a check on rational speculation.

John Locke

• Built on Newton’s insights to explain human psychology via empiricism.

• In "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1690):

  • Introduced the concept of tabula rasa (blank slate) affecting character through experience.

  • Proposed that human nature is alterable based on environment conditions.

• Rejected the Christian doctrine of original sin influencing human potential.

Example of British Toleration and Political Stability

• Post-1688, England showed political and economic stability, providing a model for enlightened reforms.

• Religious Toleration:

  • Allowed most religious practices aside from Unitarians and Roman Catholics.

• Political Aspects:

  • Limited monarchy powers, with sovereignty in Parliament.

  • Courts protected citizens from unjust imprisonment.

• Economic Aspects:

  • Less regulation in domestic economics in contrast to continental countries.

Emergence of Print Culture

• Defined as culture with a prominent status for books, journals, newspapers, and pamphlets.

• Before the 18th century: influenced by Renaissance humanism and Reformation, faced strict governmental censorship.

• Sharp increase in printed material during the 18th century, particularly in Britain.

• Emergence of prose as a distinct literary genre, showcased moral and social instruction traditionally held by religious texts.

Book Access and Literacy

• Private and public libraries became prevalent, increasing accessibility to books.

• Samuel Johnson (1790-1784): Published essays that disseminated ideas initially found in periodicals.

Social Discourse Centers

• Coffeehouses and Freemason Lodges: Centers for discussing political ideas and writing.

• Authors like Alexander Pope and Voltaire rose to prominence based on merit and commercial success.

Literary Culture

• High Literary Culture: Targeted monarchs and nobility, contributing to intellectual discourse.

• Low Literary Culture: Emerged from disillusionment, producing radical ideas aimed at lower classes.

Public Opinion

• Print circulation and discussion influenced public political and social life dramatically.

• Books and newspapers cultivated a substantial readership that shaped political discourse.

The Philosophes

Section Overview

• Philosophes: Writers and critics leading the change toward reform and religious toleration, active in print culture.

• They were often concentrated in coffeehouses, salons, and aristocratic courts, engaging the middle class and aristocracy.

Philosophes and the Middle Class

• Philosophes provided intellectual means that challenged social practices and political systems upholding aristocratic privilege.

• Promoted trade expansion, agricultural improvements, and manufacturing advancements.

Voltaire—First Among Philosophes

• Socially and politically irreverent, he faced imprisonment in the Bastille.

• Exile in England exposed him to tolerant societies, influencing his later works.

• Works like "Letters on the English" (1733) praised England’s religious tolerance while criticizing French societal abuses.

• Candide (1755): A satirical work condemning war, oppression, and blind optimism.

Enlightenment Impact on Religion

Section Overview

• Critique of Ecclesiastical Institutions:

  • Many philosophes viewed church authority as an impediment to reason and scientific inquiry.

• Original Sin Doctrine: Considered a barrier to improving human nature.

• Calvinist predestination views negated the possibility of virtuous behavior impacting one's fate post-death.

Deism

• Some philosophes were members of religious communities who sought rationality devoid of fervor.

• Deists viewed God as a logical creator but denied supernatural interventions in human affairs.

Notable Deist Thinkers

• John Toland: Advocated a naturalistic interpretation of religion, marking the rise of deism.

Deist Beliefs

• Viewed God as a watchmaker who set the world in motion without interference.

• Beliefs promoted tolerance, empirical rationale, and virtuous living.

Calls for Toleration

• John Locke: "Letter Concerning Toleration" (1689) led arguments for religious toleration; however, most of Europe resisted.

• Voltaire: Voiced for tolerance through various works, including responses to executions stemming from religious intolerance.

Radical Enlightenment Critiques

• David Hume: Argued against the existence of miracles in Christianity.

• Voltaire: Questioned the morality of biblical texts.

• Edward Gibbon: Explained the rise of Christianity using natural reasoning.

• Kant: Challenged European imperial perspectives regarding countires without centralized governance.

Jewish Thinkers of the Enlightenment

• Baruch Spinoza: Advocated for a secularized Judaism and criticized superstition; valued historical readings of sacred texts.

• Moses Mendelssohn: Proposed the integration of Jews in modern European society advocating for religious toleration.

• Islam in Enlightenment

  • Few positive scholarly views; Muslim societies were often critiqued for cultural divergence from European ideals.