Anatomy Exam 1 Review

Exam Structure and Scoring

• Total points: 100

• Section 1 (Page 1): 20 questions × 2 points each = 20 \times 2 = 40 points

• Section 2 (Page 2): Answer briefly: 3 questions × 10 points each = 3 \times 10 = 30 points

• Section 3 (Page 2): Label the images: 3 questions × 10 points each = 3 \times 10 = 30 points

• Section 4 (Page 3): Image labeling in the diagram (peptide bond) = 3 \times 10 = 30 points

Basic Unit and Body Organization

• The smallest independently functioning biological unit of an organism is a cell.

• A collection of similar tissues that performs a specific function is a tissue.

• PET stands for Positron Emission Tomography

• The study of anatomy that deals with larger structures such as bones and muscles is gross (macroscopic) anatomy.

• Number of levels in which the human body is organized: 6

  • Chemical

  • Cellular

  • Tissue

  • Organ

  • Organ system

  • Organism

• Two types of metabolic reactions:

  • Anabolism

  • Catabolism

• Imaging during pregnancy (which is safest): Ultrasound (often preferred; MRI is used with caution, X-ray is generally avoided due to ionizing radiation).

• Major disadvantages of MRI scans:

  • High cost

  • Noise

  • Need to shield from magnetic signals (and, in some settings, concerns about ferromagnetic implants or gadolinium, though not listed here)

• Elements that make up more than 95% of the body’s mass: Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen.

• The organic compound brain cells primarily rely on for fuel: Glucose.

• The 5 important monosaccharides:

  • Glucose

  • Galactose

  • Fructose

  • Deoxyribose

  • Ribose

• Polysaccharides: multiple monosaccharide units linked together; examples include Glycogen, Starch, Cellulose (fiber).

• Fill in the blank: Phospholipids are made up of --two-- fatty acids, glycerol, and a --phosphate-- group.

• What kind of lipid is cholesterol?

  • b. Sterol

• Amino acids join to form peptides, polypeptides, and proteins by a process called Dehydration synthesis.

• An enzymatic reaction begins when the substrates approach the active site on an enzyme (not a non-active site).

  • True or False? → False (substrates bind at the active site; regulation occurs at allosteric sites, which are non-active sites).

• The 4 nucleotides that make up DNA: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine. (AT;GC)

• Which part of the phospholipid molecule is polar? The phosphate head (phosphate group).

• The two types of passive cell transport discussed in class: Simple diffusion and Facilitated diffusion.

• The movement of glucose into the cell is an example of Facilitated diffusion.

Page 2 – Organ Systems, Cell Cycle, and DNA Genome Notes

• Name the 11 primary organ systems:

  • Integumentary

  • Skeletal

  • Muscular

  • Nervous

  • Endocrine

  • Cardiovascular

  • Lymphatic/Immune

  • Respiratory

  • Digestive

  • Urinary

  • Reproductive

• What are cell cycle checkpoints? Control mechanisms that ensure proper cell division. They Check for DNA errors, ensure chromosomes are aligned, and verify that the cell is ready to proceed to the next stage.

  • One real-life application: Cancer treatment targets cell cycle checkpoints to prevent uncontrolled cell division.

• Describe the structure of human DNA, highlighting the number of chromosomes in Homo sapiens and two applications/outcomes of the Human Genome Project (HGP):

  • Structure: Double helix composed of two antiparallel strands with base-pairing (A pairs with T; G pairs with C).

  • Chromosome count in somatic human cells: 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).

  • Two key outcomes/applications of the HGP:

  • Identification of disease-associated genes and variants, enabling better diagnosis and personalized medicine.

  • Advancement of forensic science, pharmacogenomics, and our understanding of human evolution and biology.

Label the Images (3 × 10 = 30)

• Identify the peptide bond in the choices below:

  • A peptide bond is the covalent bond formed between the carbonyl carbon of one amino acid and the amino nitrogen of the adjacent amino acid, represented as -C(=O)-NH- link between amino acids.

  • In diagrams, look for the bond that links the carbonyl carbon of one amino acid to the amine nitrogen of the next amino acid (the amide linkage).

Page 3 – Dorsal/Ventral Cavities and Body Orientation

• Dorsal body cavity:

  • Contains the brain (cranial cavity) and the spinal cord (vertebral canal).

• Ventral body cavity:

  • Contains the heart and lungs within the thoracic cavity.

  • Contains the abdominal and pelvic viscera within the abdominopelvic cavity (digestive organs, urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum).

• Diaphragm:

  • A muscular partition that separates the thoracic cavity (above the diaphragm) from the abdominal/pelvic cavity (below the diaphragm).

• Orientation and labeling cues (as seen in a lateral view):

  • Dorsal vs. ventral orientation indicates posterior vs. anterior relationships.

  • The lateral view helps identify the diaphragm’s position relative to thoracic vs. abdominal contents and shows how the cavities are organized in the body plan.

Connections, Implications, and Practice Tips

• Practical implications:

  • Ultrasound is preferred for imaging during pregnancy due to lack of ionizing radiation.

  • MRI provides excellent soft-tissue contrast but is costly and noisy; consider safety and patient comfort.

  • MRI safety considerations include avoiding implants or devices that react to magnets and carefully considering gadolinium use.

  • Understanding body cavities helps in clinical imaging, surgery planning, and interpreting physical assessments.

• Foundational connections:

  • The six levels of organization underpin all physiology and pathology: chemical → cellular → tissue → organ → organ system → organism.

  • Metabolic reactions (anabolism vs. catabolism) drive growth, maintenance, and energy balance in tissues.

  • Polysaccharides and monosaccharides are key energy sources and structural components (glycogen in animals; starch and cellulose in plants).

• Ethical and practical implications:

  • Genome projects raise considerations about privacy, data sharing, and potential genetic discrimination; benefits include personalized medicine and disease risk assessment.

  • Medical imaging involves trade-offs between risk (radiation exposure) and diagnostic value; safety guidelines aim to minimize risk, especially in pregnant individuals.

Quick Reference (Key Terms in One Line Each)

• Cell: basic unit of life; smallest unit that can function independently.

• Tissue: collection of similar cells performing a function.

• Gross/macroscopic anatomy: study of large structures (bones, muscles).

• Levels of organization: 6 levels.

• Anabolism: building up; Catabolism: breaking down.

• Monosaccharides: Glucose, Galactose, Fructose, Deoxyribose, Ribose.

• Polysaccharide examples: Glycogen, Starch, Cellulose.

• Phospholipid structure: two fatty acids + glycerol + phosphate group.

• Cholesterol type: Sterol.

• Dehydration synthesis: amino acids join to form peptides/polypeptides/proteins with water loss.

• Active site: the site where substrates bind to enzymes to catalyze reactions.

• DNA bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C).

• Polar phospholipid region: phosphate head.

• Passive transport types: Simple diffusion; Facilitated diffusion.

• Facilitated diffusion for glucose: yes (via transport proteins).

• Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Endocrine, Cardiovascular, Lymphatic/Immune, Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, Reproductive: the 11 organ systems.

• Cell cycle checkpoints: G1/S, G2/M, spindle (M) checkpoint; used in cancer therapy and research to control cell division.

• Human Chromosome count: 46; 23 pairs.

• Human Genome Project outcomes: disease gene identification; personalized medicine.

• Dorsal cavity contents: brain and spinal cord.

• Ventral cavity contents: heart, lungs, digestive organs, urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum.

• Diaphragm: separates thoracic and abdominal/pelvic cavities.