AP PSYCH SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Attributions: Explanations for why people behave as they do.

• Actor-Observer Bias: We attribute others’ behavior to disposition but our own to the situation.

• **Dispositional Attribution: Behavior caused by internal traits (e.g., personality, intelligence).

  • Fundamental Attribution Error: Overestimating personality and underestimating situation when judging others.

• Situational Attribution: Behavior caused by external factors (e.g., environment, stress).

  • Self-Serving Bias: Taking credit for success (dispositional) but blaming failure on external factors (situational).

Explanatory Style:

• **Optimistic: Attributes failures to external, unstable, or specific factors.

• **Pessimistic: Attributes failures to internal, stable, or global factors

Mere Exposure Effect: Repeated exposure to something increases our liking of it.

• Companionate love: deep commitment and affection between people, built with trust, lasting

• Passionate love: romantic love, intense emotions, strong sexual attraction, and a consuming feeling of desire 

• Halo Effect: cognitive bias that occurs when a person's overall impression of someone is based on a single trait.

• **Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectations about a person lead to behaviors that make those expectations come true.

• Social Comparison:c omparing oneself to others in order to evaluate one's own abilities, achievements, and overall self-worth.

• Bystander Effect: phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present, often due to the diffusion of responsibility.

  • y;lUpward: Comparing to someone better → motivation or insecurity. ↓

  • Downward: Comparing to someone worse → boosts self-esteem. ↑

• **Relative Deprivation: Feeling deprived compared to others leads to frustration or resentment.

Stereotype: Generalized belief about a group.

• Cognitive Load: Under stress, we rely more on stereotypes for quick judgments.

• Biased Perceptions: We interpret information to fit our stereotypes.

• Prejudiced Attitudes: Preconceived, negative beliefs about a group.

• Discriminatory Behaviors: Actions based on prejudice.

• Implicit Attitudes: Unconscious biases that shape behavior.

• Negative Evaluations: Tendency to judge out-group members more harshly.

• Just World Phenomenon: Belief that the world is fair, leading to victim-blaming.

• **Out-Group Homogeneity Bias: Seeing out-group members as all the same.

• In-Group Bias: Favoring one’s own group.

• Ethnocentrism: Believing one’s culture is superior.

• **Belief Perseverance: Clinging to beliefs despite contradictory evidence.

• Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that supports existing beliefs.

• **Cognitive Dissonance: Psychological discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs → motivates attitude change.

• Social Norms: Expected behaviors in society.

• Normative Social Influence: Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.

• Informational Social Influence: Conforming because we believe others are correct.

• Persuasion:

  • Elaboration Likelihood Model: Two routes to persuasion:

    • Central Route: Based on logical arguments.

    • Peripheral Route: Based on emotions, attractiveness, or credibility.

• Foot-in-the-Door: Small request followed by a larger request.

• Door-in-the-Face: Large request first (likely rejected), then a smaller request.

• Conformity: Adjusting behavior to fit group norms.

• Obedience: Following authority, even against personal beliefs.

• Individualism: Prioritizing personal goals over group goals.

• Collectivism: Prioritizing group harmony over personal goals.

• Multiculturalism: Emphasizing coexistence of diverse cultures.

• Group Polarization: Group discussions strengthen extreme views.

• Groupthink: Desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making.

• Social Loafing: Putting in less effort in group tasks.

• Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in groups, leading to impulsive behavior.

• Social Facilitation: Performing better on easy tasks in front of others.

• False Consensus Effect: Overestimating how much others share our beliefs.

• Diffusion of Responsibility: Assuming others will take action, reducing personal responsibility

• Superordinate Goals: Shared goals that require cooperation, reducing conflict.

• Social Traps: Pursuing self-interest harms the group (e.g., overusing resources).

• Industrial-Organizational Psychologists: Study workplace behavior and group dynamics.

• Burnout: Emotional exhaustion from chronic stress.

• Altruism: Helping others with no expectation of reward.

• Social Debt: Feeling obligated to return a favor.

• Prosocial Behavior: Actions that benefit others or society.

• Social Reciprocity Norm: Expectation to help those who help us.

• Social Responsibility Norm: Expectation to help those in need.

• Bystander Effect: People are less likely to help in large groups due to diffusion of responsibility.

• Diffusion of Responsibility: Assuming others will take action, reducing personal responsibility.

• Pluralistic Ignorance – When individuals assume others in a group understand a situation better than they do, leading to inaction.

• Scapegoat Theory – Tendency to blame an out-group for problems.

• Social Exchange Theory – Human relationships are based on cost-benefit analysis.

• Norm of Reciprocity – The expectation that people will respond to kindness with kindness.

• ***Aggression (Instrumental vs. Hostile) – Instrumental aggression is goal-driven, while emotions drive hostile aggression.

• Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis – Frustration increases the likelihood of aggression.

• **Contact Hypothesis – Intergroup contact under the right conditions can reduce prejudice.

• Role Theory – People behave in ways consistent with the social roles they are given.

• Self-Perception Theory – People infer their own attitudes by observing their behavior.

• Social Identity Theory – People derive self-esteem from their group memberships.

• **Cognitive Miser – The idea that humans take mental shortcuts to save cognitive effort.

• **Illusory Correlation – Perceiving a relationship between two variables when none exists.

• **Minimal Group Paradigm – Even arbitrary group distinctions can create in-group favoritism.

• Normative vs. Informational Influence – Conforming for social acceptance vs. to gain accurate information.

• Terror Management Theory – How awareness of mortality influences attitudes and behaviors.