• Chapter 2 VOCAB

  • van der Waals forces- /

  • hydrogen bond- A weak bond between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom (such as oxygen or nitrogen) in a different molecule or within the same molecule.

  • cohesion- The attraction between molecules of the same substance

  • adhesion- The attraction between molecules of different substances

  • Solute- a substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form a solution.

  • solvent- A substance in which solutes are dissolved to form a solution.

  • monomer- a molecule that can join together with other molecules to form a polymer.

  • polymer- A large molecule made up of repeating subunits called monomers.

  • carbohydrate- A biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, typically in a ratio of 1:2:1. They serve as a source of energy and structural support.

  • monosaccharide- The simplest form of carbohydrate, also known as a simple sugar.

  • lipid- A diverse group of hydrophobic molecules that include fats, oils, and waxes. They serve as a source of energy, insulation, and protection.

  • nucleic acid- A complex biomolecule that stores and transmits genetic information. Examples include DNA and RNA.

  • nucleotide- The building block of nucleic acids, consisting of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

  • protein- A large biomolecule composed of amino acids. They have various functions, including structural support, enzymatic activity, and cell signaling

  • amino acid- The building block of proteins, consists of an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a side chain.

  • chemical reaction-The process in which one or more substances are transformed into different substances through the breaking and forming of chemical bonds.

  • reactant- A substance that participates in a chemical reaction and undergoes a change.

  • product- A substance that is formed as a result of a chemical reaction.

  • activation energy- The minimum amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to occur.

  • catalyst- A substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy.

  • enzyme- A biological catalyst, typically a protein, that facilitates specific chemical reactions in living organisms.

  • substrate- The specific molecule or molecules on which an enzyme acts during a chemical reaction.

Macromolecules

Four Types of Organic Macromolecules:

Carbohydrates

• A biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, typically in a ratio of 1:2:1. They serve as a source of energy and structural support.

• Elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

  • ratio of 1:2:1

  • Energy and structural support

Lipids-

• A diverse group of hydrophobic molecules that include fats, oils, and waxes. They serve as a source of energy, insulation, and protection.

Proteins-

• A large biomolecule composed of amino acids. They have various functions, including structural support, enzymatic activity, and cell signaling

Nucleic Acids-

• A complex biomolecule that stores and transmits genetic information. Examples include DNA and RNA.

What is glycogen and where is it found?

• Glycogen is a polysaccharide that serves as a storage form of glucose in animals, including humans. It is primarily found in the liver and muscles.

Differences in compounds and elements:

• A compound is a substance composed of two or more different elements chemically bonded together. Compounds have unique properties different from their constituent elements.

• An element is a pure substance made up of only one type of atom. Elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means.

Difference between dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions.

• Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis are two types of chemical reactions that involve the formation and breaking of bonds in molecules.

• Dehydration synthesis, also known as condensation reaction, is a process where two molecules combine to form a larger molecule, with the release of a water molecule. It is commonly observed in the formation of polymers, such as proteins and carbohydrates. The reaction requires energy input.

• Hydrolysis, on the other hand, is the reverse process of dehydration synthesis. It involves the breaking of a larger molecule into smaller molecules through the addition of a water molecule. Hydrolysis reactions are commonly involved in the digestion of food and the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones. The reaction releases energy.

• In summary, dehydration synthesis builds larger molecules by removing water, while hydrolysis breaks down larger molecules by adding water.

What affects the activity of enzymes:

• The activity of enzymes can be affected by various factors, including temperature, pH level, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, and the presence of inhibitors or activators.

What are products/reactants and where are they located?

• In a chemical reaction, products are the substances formed as a result of the reaction, while reactants are the substances that undergo the reaction. Products are located on the right side of a chemical equation, while reactants are located on the left side.

The monomers of each macromolecule and what polymers they make:

• The monomers of each macromolecule are as follows:

1. Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose)

2. Proteins: Amino acids (20 different types)

3. Nucleic acids: Nucleotides (e.g., adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine/uracil)

4. Lipids: No true monomers, but they are composed of fatty acids and glycerol.

• These monomers combine to form polymers:

1. Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose)

2. Proteins: Polypeptides (formed by peptide bonds between amino acids)

3. Nucleic acids: DNA or RNA (formed by phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides)

4. Lipids: No true polymers, as they do not have repeating units like the other macromolecules.

   • Please note that lipids are not considered true polymers, as they do not have a specific repeating unit like the other macromolecules.

Why do different organisms have unique proteins despite there only being 20 different amino acids?

• Different organisms have unique proteins despite there being only 20 different amino acids because the arrangement and sequence of these amino acids in a protein chain determine its structure and function.

• The specific order of amino acids, along with other factors like post-translational modifications, folding, and interactions with other molecules, contribute to the diversity of proteins. Additionally, variations in the DNA sequence of genes encoding proteins can lead to differences in protein composition among organisms.

What is a carboxyl group? What is an amino group? What macromolecule do they make up?

• A carboxyl group is a functional group consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and single-bonded to a hydroxyl group.

• An amino group is a functional group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms.

• Together, they make up the functional groups found in amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins, a type of macromolecule.

Differences between a covalent and ionic bond:

• A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share electrons, while an ionic bond is formed when one atom transfers electrons to another.

• Covalent bonds typically occur between nonmetals, have a relatively low melting and boiling point, and result in the formation of molecules.

• Ionic bonds occur between a metal and a nonmetal, have a high melting and boiling point, and result in the formation of ions.

What is denaturation and what causes it?

• Denaturation refers to the process in which a protein loses its structure and function (stops working).

• It can be caused by various factors such as heat, pH extremes, chemicals, or mechanical agitation.

What is an isotope?

• An isotope is a variant of an element that has the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons in its nucleus.

  • This results in a different atomic mass for the isotope. Isotopes can have different physical properties and may be stable or radioactive.

What ends in -ose and -ase?

• Substances that end in -ose are carbohydrates, such as glucose and fructose.

• Substances that end in -ase are enzymes, which are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions, such as amylase and lactase.

What is a monosaccharide and what does saccharide mean?

• A monosaccharide is a simple sugar, consisting of a single sugar unit.

  • Ex: glucose, fructose, and galactose.

• The term "saccharide" refers to a class of organic compounds that are carbohydrates, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

What is a disaccharide?

• A disaccharide is a type of carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharide units joined together through a glycosidic bond.

  • EX: sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (glucose + glucose).

What is a polysaccharide?

• A polysaccharide is a type of carbohydrate composed of multiple simple sugars (monosaccharide) units linked together by glycosidic bonds.

  • EX: Starch, cellulose and glycogen

What is starch and where is it found?

• Starch is a complex carbohydrate or polysaccharide that serves as a major source of energy in the diet of humans and many other animals.

  • Starch is commonly found in plants, where it serves as a storage form of glucose, providing energy for the plant during periods of growth or when needed.

What is cellulose and where is it found?

• Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate and the most abundant organic compound found in nature. It is a polysaccharide made up of linear chains of glucose molecules,

• Cellulose serves as a structural component in the cell walls of plants, algae, and certain bacteria. It provides strength and rigidity to plant cells, allowing them to maintain their shape and support the plant's structure.

Examples of lipids and what molecules make them up:

• Fats (Triglycerides)

• Phosholipids

• Steriods

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?

• Chemical Structure:

  • Saturated Fats: Saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains. All carbon atoms in the chain are "saturated" with hydrogen atoms.

  • Unsaturated Fats: Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds between the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains. The presence of double bonds creates "kinks" in the chain and prevents the maximum possible hydrogen saturation.

• State at Room Temperature:

  • Saturated Fats: Saturated fats are typically solid at room temperature.

  • Unsaturated Fats: Unsaturated fats are usually liquid at room temperature.

• Sources:

  • Saturated Fats: Saturated fats are primarily found in animal products like meat, butter, cheese, and dairy products, as well as some plant oils like coconut oil and palm oil.

  • Unsaturated Fats: Unsaturated fats are commonly found in plant-based oils (e.g., olive oil, canola oil, sunflower oil), nuts, seeds, avocados, and fatty fish. They are also present in smaller amounts in some animal products.

What are the building blocks of proteins?

• The building blocks of proteins are amino acids.

Amino acids are linked together in what type of bonds to form proteins?

• Amino acids are linked together through peptide bonds to form proteins.

What are nucleic acids? Give two examples.

• Nucleic acids are complex macromolecules that play a fundamental role in the storage, transmission, and expression of genetic information within living organisms.

  • EX: Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

    • Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

What are buffers?

• Buffers are solutions that resist changes in pH (acidity or alkalinity) when small amounts of acids or bases are added to them.

What type of sugar does DNA and RNA have?

• Deoxyribose (in DNA):

• Ribose (in RNA):

What is energy?

• Energy is the capacity or ability to do work, cause change, or produce an effect. It is a quantitative measure of a system's ability to perform work, move objects, or transfer heat.

Difference between hydrophilic and hydrophobic:

• Hydrophilic- attracted to water

• Hydrophobic- scared of water

The pH scale and the difference between acids and bases:

1. pH Scale:

   • pH < 7: Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic. The lower the pH, the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺ ions), making the solution more acidic.

   • pH = 7: A pH of 7 is considered neutral, indicating an equal concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻). Pure water is an example of a neutral solution.

   • pH > 7: Solutions with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline or basic. The higher the pH, the higher the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH⁻ ions), making the solution more basic.

2. Acids are H+ while bases are OH-

Why is enxyme activity compared to a lock and key?