Chronic Behavioral Therapy

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) helps change thought patterns to break negative cycles affecting mood and behavior.

• Example: Negative thoughts about social interactions lead to avoidance, reinforcing feelings of worthlessness.

Gender Differences in Depression

• Women are twice as likely to experience major depressive disorder compared to men.

• Possible explanations: hormonal factors (e.g., menstrual cycles, pregnancy, menopause) and differing help-seeking behaviors.

• Men might not seek help as often, but that is not the sole reason for discrepancy in diagnosis rates.

Sleep and Depression

• Sleep disruptions in depression include insomnia or hypersomnia.

• Reduction in slow-wave sleep (stage 3) and increased REM sleep density that occurs earlier in the night.

Bipolar Disorder

• Characterized by cyclical patterns of depressive and manic episodes.

• Depressive episodes can last for weeks/months, while manic episodes are shorter (about a week).

• Symptoms of mania include grandiosity, reduced need for sleep, racing thoughts, distractibility, and risky behaviors.

• Diagnosis often misplaced as schizophrenia due to symptom overlap; treatment varies from antipsychotics to CBT.

Incidence and Onset

• Affect men and women equally; earlier onset compared to major depression.

• Environmental factors and genetic predisposition interact to influence the development of the disorder.

Neurobiology of Bipolar Disorder

• Enlarged ventricles and reduced volume in the amygdala, hippocampus, and frontal cortex observed.

• Psychological treatment options include lithium and CBT.

Anxiety Disorders

• Include phobias, panic disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).

• Phobic disorders involve persistent excessive fear, potentially irrational.

• Categories: animals, environments, situations (e.g., social phobia).

Panic Disorder

• Defined by recurrent panic attacks and fear of subsequent attacks; can lead to agoraphobia.

• Symptoms may include shortness of breath, heart palpitations, sweating, etc.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

• Chronic excessive worry with symptoms like restlessness, fatigue, irritability, and sleep problems.

Neurobiology of Anxiety

• Strong genetic components; differences present in the amygdala and related circuits.

• Treatments include benzodiazepines for symptoms and SSRIs/SNRIs for underlying causes.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions) aimed at alleviating anxiety.

• Types of obsessions: germs, harm, symmetry; compulsions may include washing hands, checking locks, etc.

Treatment for OCD

• Response to cognitive behavioral therapy and serotonin reuptake inhibitors.

• Comorbidity with depression is common.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• Chronic arousal and reactions triggered by traumatic memories, common in soldiers and first responders.

• Symptoms: flashbacks, avoidance of triggers, and memory deficits possibly related to hippocampal volume.

Treatment for PTSD

• Includes CBT, exposure therapy, and sometimes MDMA to relieve symptoms.