PSYC 101 – Chapter 8 Study Guide Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

I. Thinking and Problem Solving

✅ Cognition – All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering,

and communicating.

✅ Concepts – Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

✅ Prototypes – The best example of a category.

Problem-Solving Strategies

🔹 Trial and Error – Random attempts until the solution is found.

🔹 Algorithm – Step-by-step method guaranteeing a solution.🔹 Heuristic – Simple thinking shortcut; faster but more error-prone.

🔹 Insight – Sudden realization of a solution ("Aha!" moment).

Obstacles to Problem Solving

🚫 Confirmation Bias – Tendency to seek evidence that supports existing beliefs.

🚫 Functional Fixedness – Seeing objects only in their typical use, limiting

problem-solving.

II. Decision Making and Judgment

✅ Intuition – Effortless, automatic thinking.

✅ Availability Heuristic – Estimating event likelihood based on how easily it comes

to mind (e.g., fearing plane crashes more than car accidents).

✅ Representativeness Heuristic – Judging based on similarity to a prototype (e.g.,

assuming someone is a librarian because they look like one).

✅ Overconfidence – Overestimating accuracy of our knowledge.

✅ Belief Perseverance – Holding on to beliefs despite contrary evidence.

✅ Framing Effect – The way an issue is presented affects decision-making (e.g.,

“90% survival rate” vs. “10% death rate”).

III. Creativity

✅ Convergent Thinking – Narrows problem-solving to one correct answer (used in IQ

tests).

tests).

✅ Divergent Thinking – Expands the number of possible solutions (used in creativity

5 Ingredients of Creativity (Sternberg):

🔹 Expertise

🔹 Imaginative Thinking

🔹 Venturesome Personality

🔹 Intrinsic Motivation

🔹 Creative Environment

IV. Language and Development✅ Language – A system of spoken, written, or signed communication.

✅ Receptive Language – Understanding words before speaking (infants).

✅ Productive Language – Producing words after receptive language.

✅ Critical Period – Best time for learning language; declines after age 7.

Brain Areas in Language:

🧠 Broca’s Area – Speech production (left frontal lobe).

🧠 Wernicke’s Area – Language comprehension (left temporal lobe).

✅ Thinking Without Language – Mental practice (e.g., imagining a task improves

performance).

✅ Do Animals Have Language?

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Some animals can communicate (e.g., chimps using signs), but human language

is uniquely complex.

V. Intelligence

✅ Definition – Ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new

situations.

Theories of Intelligence:

📌 Spearman’s g-Factor – One general intelligence (g) underlying all abilities.

📌 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences – 8 types (linguistic, spatial, musical, etc.).

📌 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory –

🔹 Analytical Intelligence (problem-solving, school smarts)

🔹 Creative Intelligence (novel ideas, innovation)

🔹 Practical Intelligence (street smarts, handling everyday tasks)

📌 Emotional Intelligence – Understanding and managing emotions.

VI. Measuring Intelligence

✅ IQ (Intelligence Quotient) – Originally measured mental age vs. actual age. Now

based on standardized testing.

✅ Types of Tests:

●

●

Aptitude Test – Predicts future performance (e.g., SAT).

Achievement Test – Measures learned knowledge (e.g., exams).●

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) – Measures verbal and nonverbal

IQ.

Three Qualities of a Good Test:

📌 Standardization – Consistent testing conditions and scoring.

📌 Reliability – Consistent results over time.

📌 Validity – Measures what it claims to measure.

✅ The Normal Curve – Bell-shaped curve of IQ scores; average = 100.

VII. Nature vs. Nurture in Intelligence

✅ Heritability – The proportion of intelligence differences due to genes.

✅ Environmental Factors – Education, culture, and experiences influence

intelligence.

✅ Twin & Adoption Studies – Identical twins have the most similar IQs, even when

raised apart.

VIII. Intelligence Across the Lifespan

✅ Crystallized Intelligence – Knowledge and skills increase with age.

✅ Fluid Intelligence – Quick reasoning and problem-solving decline with age.

IX. Group Differences in Intelligence

✅ Gender Differences:

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Boys: Better in spatial and complex math.

Girls: Better in verbal fluency, spelling, and detecting emotions.

✅ Race and Ethnicity:

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Intelligence scores differ among groups, but cultural and environmental factors

are key influences.

✅ Are Intelligence Tests Biased?

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Predictive validity applies across groups, but cultural bias may exist.●

Stereotype Threat – Fear of confirming a negative stereotype affects

performance.