fundamentals of industry

SECTION 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF INDUSTRY

1.1 Sectors and their roles within the Construction and Manufacturing Industries

1.1.1 Industries

Construction; manufacturing, production, design, administration and materials involved in the

erection of buildings.

Manufacturing; the production, making or preparing of materials and products for use.

Electrical and Electronic; manufacturing, production or design, of materials concerned with use

of electricity of electrical and electronic devices and installations.

1.1.2 The Construction Sectors:

Residential; sector concerned with the construction of dwelling houses; buildings which contain

one or a number of dwellings, or one whose sole purpose is to serve as such.

Industrial; sector concerned with the construction of buildings for the production or

manufacture of devices, materials, goods and products.

Commercial; sector concerned with the construction of buildings or spaces within a building

designated by planning authorities for the practice of business, project or venture set up with

the intention of providing goods and services to make a profit.

Civic; sector concerned with the construction of structures and built form of a quality and

suitability for an urban setting. (Cities)

1.1.3 The roles of the following in the manufacturing sectors:

Engineering Design; the process or formulating, creating, altering and planning a functional, graphic

or mass produced object such as a structure, device, furnishing or fitting through the use of

technology

E.g. drafting, architecture, design etc.

Industrial Production; the manufacturing or processing of a device, product or material in a

series of predetermined quantity or in a continuous run.

E.g. product assembly, modelling, aviation etc.

Industrial Maintenance; the servicing; the care of a device, building, structure, system or

technical installation in order to keep it functioning long term.

E.g. wiring installation, technical support, communication etc.

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1.2 Organisational Structure of the Construction and Manufacturing Industries

Organisational chart of personnel (managers, workers, tasks and relationships):

Top-down structure

Organizational change that is initiated by managers

Flat Structure

An organization with relatively few levels in its hierarchy

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Matrix

A flexible form of organization structure often used in situation which requires a mix of people

with different skills and experience to be focused on a particular task, or an unusual project that

crosses existing departmental boundaries in an organization.

1.3 Occupational levels and their functions in the construction and manufacturing industries

Semi-skilled; a construction worker with a level of skill between a tradesman and labourer.

Skilled; a construction worker whose skill is equivalent to that of a tradesman, often one skilled

in a modern trade.

Technician (supervisory);

work on site carried out by specific tradesmen/ craftsmen

Technologist/Master Craftsman; a person skilled in a particular job of work, employed on a

construction site to direct or to carry out specific skilled work.

Professional; a qualified and duly licensed individual that performs engineering services such as

structural, mechanical, electrical, sanitary, and civil engineering.

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1.4. Career paths and qualifications in the construction and manufacturing industries

1.4.1 Construction industries:

Self-employment opportunities

Craftsmen /Tradesmen - carpenters, electricians, electronics technicians, masons, plumbers,

furniture makers, woodcrafters, upholsterers, painters; welders, machine operators and fitters;

Technical workers - technicians, technologists, finishing technicians; drafting and design

technicians;

Professional workers - electrical, mechanical, construction structural, civil and building service

engineers, architects, quantity surveyors, construction project managers, planners,

1.4.2 Fundamentals of Entrepreneurship:

Entrepreneurship

Within the building trades, entrepreneurship is the capacity and willingness to develop, organize

and manage a business venture along with any of its risks in order to make a profit. Successful

entrepreneurs have the ability to lead a business in a positive direction by proper planning, to adapt

to changing environments and understand their own strengths and weaknesses.

Principles of entrepreneurship;

Motivation; what is the incentive for starting a business? Is it money alone? True, many

entrepreneurs achieve great wealth. However, money is almost always tight in the start-up

and early phases of a new business.

Strategy; what is the strategy for distinguishing the product or service? Is the plan to

compete solely on the basis of selling price? Price is important, but most economists agree

that it is extremely risky to compete on price alone. Large firms that produce huge

quantities have the advantage in lowering costs.

Realistic Vision;

operating funds are the cause of many failed businesses. Entrepreneurs often

underestimate start-up costs and overestimate sales revenues in their business plans.

Goal setting;

Long-term Goal something you want to achieve in the future

Short-term Goal something you might do right away

Decision making skills:

1. defining your problem

2. gathering information and resources,

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3. listing options

4. weighing and comparing options

Business plan; is a document that presents basic idea for the venture and includes descriptions of

where you are now, where you want to go, and how you intend to get there.

The basic elements of a standard business plan include:

Title Page

Table of Contents

Executive Summary

Company Description

Product/Service

Market and Competition

Marketing and Selling Strategy

Operating Plan

Management/Organization

Financing

Supporting Documents

Success factors:

Marketing and promotion; the process of researching, promoting, selling, and distributing

a product or service. Marketing covers a broad range of practices, including advertising,

publicity, promotion, pricing, and packaging.

competitiveness; providing a product or service that is seen by its target market as

better than those of competitors

Leadership; is the ability to create rules and to set goals. It is the capacity to follow

through to see that rules are followed and goals are accomplished.

management of production and efficiency;

quality control;

customer satisfaction:

1. Providing the most basic benefits of the product and/or service the elements that

customers expect all competitors to deliver

2. Offering general support services, such as customer assistance setting up a system

to counteract any bad experiences customers may experience

3.

make the product and/or service seem customized

Government legislation; legislation regarding health and safety, labelling and product safety

assets through trademarks, patents, copyrights, performance clauses and trade rights.

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Lending institutions;

o Banks are very conservative lenders. Many entrepreneurs simply do not have enough assets

to get a secured loan from a lending institution.

o Government programs: Many national and regional governments offer programs to

encourage small- and medium-sized businesses. In Antigua the Development Bank and Small

Business Association assist small firms by acting as a guarantor of loans made by private

institutions for borrowers who may not otherwise qualify for a commercial loan.

Benefits;

Being your own boss. When you start a business and are self-employed, you are your own

boss and ultimately control your own destiny.

Income. Whether you view starting a business as an economic necessity or a way to make

some additional income, you might find it generates a new source of income.

Flexible hours. Owning your own business is hard work and often requires long, odd hours.

In some cases, having your own business may allow you to have more flexible hours. Many

skilled tradesmen and craftsmen, for example, choose to become entrepreneurs.

Risks;

commitment becomes better defined. More risk can also be transferred to third parties if the

client so wishes. Whilst under most procurement routes the client is required to accept risks

associated with design performance, they will generally seek to transfer commercial and

construction risks to the contractor through some form of a fixed price, lump sum contract.

1.5. Codes and Standards

The objective of a building code is to ensure that all new construction and renovated buildings

provide a minimum level of safety, health, and welfare to the occupants and public at large. Although

under no legal obligation to do so, the owner or the designer may choose to exceed the requirements

of the code. The objective of a building code is to ensure that all new construction and renovated

buildings provide a minimum level of safety, health, and welfare to the occupants and public at large.

Although under no legal obligation to do so, the owner or the designer may choose to exceed the

requirements of the code.

1.5.1 Occupational Health and Safety Standards

Industry health and safety regulations:

The Building Regulations; this is a Statutory Instrument which sets out the minimum performance

standards for the design and construction of buildings and where applicable to the extension of

buildings. The regulations are supported by other documents which generally give guidance on how

to achieve the required performance standards. A standard should not be confused with a building

code provision. Although a code specifies the design criteria or the required properties of a

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component, the standard specifies the procedures and equipment required to verify the criteria or

measure the properties.

Legal responsibilities of Employers;

In the industrially developed countries, there exist very well defined and highly stringent punitive

codes and statutes, which are designed to maintain and improve safety, health and welfare of

employed persons. These laws at their best only impose a minimum standard of conduct defining

them to be the absolute duty of the employer.

General Duties of Employees

Every employee is under a moral, and often also a legal, duty to take the maximum care for his or

her own safety and that of fellow employees.

- ; a five- to ten-minute session with the supervisor just prior to starting a task

gives the workers and the supervisor a chance to talk about safety problems likely to be

encountered and potential solutions to those problems. This activity is simple to implement and it

may prevent a serious accident.

a check by workers that the environment is safe before starting an operation may

allow them to take remedial action to correct an unsafe situation that could later endanger them

or another worker.

Environmental Safety Practices

Compliance with all applicable environmental, health, and safety laws and regulations.

Continual improvement in environmental, health, and safety performance with the ultimate

goal of zero injuries and zero emissions of toxic and hazardous materials.

Design and operation of plants and facilities in a manner that protects the environment

and the health and safety of employees and the public.

Development and production of products that can be manufactured, distributed, used and

recycled or disposed of in a safe and environmentally sound manner.

Open discussion of our environmental, health, and safety practices and performances.

Safety and Maintenance Standards

National laws and regulations are often based upon international conventions, agreements,

declarations and programmes. These have been drawn up by different United Nations organizations

including the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).

In 1988 the ILO adopted the Safety and Health in Construction Convention (No.167), and the

accompanying Recommendation (No.175), which provide a foundation of law on which safe and

healthy working conditions can be built.

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Health and Wellness Standards

These standards deal with the means of egress, accessibility, and interior environment, including

lighting, ventilation, sanitation, and sound control.

welfare but also enhance efficiency. Welfare facilities such as the provision of drinking-water,

washing, sanitary and changing accommodation, rest-rooms and shelter, facilities for preparing and

eating meals, temporary housing, assistance in transport from place of residence to the work site

maintained by one contractor for all workers or by individual contractors.

Standards for Fire Prevention and Response

These standards deal with fire-resistive materials and construction, fire-resistive interior

finishes, and fire protection systems. Fire protection systems include those that detect and

suppress fires.

Basic First Aid standards

First aid is the emergency care you give to sick or injured persons. It consists only of providing

temporary assistance or treatment until medical help is available.

Basic emergency response standards

Procedures for handling an emergency:

1. The chain of command must be set up so that responders and communications are

controlled through an Incident Command System (ICS). (ICS is a system developed within

the fire service to identify hazardous conditions and to designate appropriate controls and

procedures during an emergency.)

2. Emergency responders shall use a buddy system -- working in teams of two or more in the

hazardous zone.

3. Certain employees may play a role in an emergency even though they are not emergency

responders. These employees need to be briefed on what chemical hazards are involved, on

what they as skilled support personnel are expected to do during an emergency, and

instructed on the wearing of any required PPE.

4. Workers shall also receive appropriate safety and health training for the tasks they are

expected to perform during clean-up following an emergency operation.

1.5.2 Electrical Installation and Electronics

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) is an association of technical

professionals with more than Institute of 400,000 members in chapters around the world. Its

objectives are the educational and technical advancement of electrical and electronic engineering,

telecommunications, and computer engineering and allied disciplines.

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NEC (The National Electrical Code) or NFPA 70, is a regionally adoptable standard for the safe

installation of electrical wiring and equipment in the United States.

Safety against electrical hazards

Following precautions must be observed while working on electrical works to protect against

shocks;

Avoid contact with live parts by insulating all live parts and placing them out of reach by

using barriers or temporary barriers.

Check and inspect all cables and equipment for damage before using them.

PAT test all portable equipment.

Use only low voltage or battery tools.

Use a secure electrical isolation procedure before beginning work as described earlier in

this chapter.

Electrical Material

New (Harmonized) Fixed Cable Core Colours

Single-phase supplies brown line conductors, blue neutral conductors and green combined with

yellow for earth conductors (just like the existing flexible cords).

Three-phase supplies brown, black and grey line conductors, blue neutral conductors and green

combined with yellow for earth conductors. These are the cable core colours to be used from 31

March 2004 onwards. Extensions or alterations to existing single-phase installations do not require

marking at the interface between the old and new fixed wiring colours. However, a warning notice

must be fixed at the consumer unit or distribution fuse board.

The following factors are checked to ensure the correctness of an electrical installation:

polarity: to ensure that the various elements, such as sockets, lights, etc., are wired up

correctly

earthing: to ensure that a proper and continuous earth has been established

insulation resistance: to ensure that insulation of the cables is in good order

wiring circuit continuity: to ensure that the earth, neutral and live wires are all properly

connected and continuous

Semi-conductor Materials and Devices

Modern electronic devices use the semiconductor properties of materials such as silicon or

germanium. The atoms of pure silicon or germanium are arranged in a lattice structure. The outer

electron orbits contain four electrons known as valence electrons. These electrons are all linked to

other valence electrons from adjacent atoms, forming a covalent bond. There are no free electrons

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in pure silicon or germanium and, therefore, no conduction can take place unless the bonds are

broken and the lattice framework is destroyed.

To make conduction possible without destroying the crystal it is necessary to replace a four

valent atom with a three- or five-valent atom. This process is known as doping.

1.5.3 Engineering Production

The Process Engineering Function

Process: It is simply a method which products can be manufactured from raw materials. It could

also be described as a method for shaping raw materials into usable product forms. The term

process, applies to the shaping of metal, plastic or rubber in the raw material states.

General Manufacturing Processes

Casting and Moulding

Machining or Cutting

Forming or Deforming

Assembly

In addition to the process for shaping raw materials, finishing operations are used to obtain the

final quality desired. These processes include: Cleaning, Painting, Buffing, Plating, Polishing,

Deburring, Heat treatment etc. Nearly all products manufactured require at least two or more of

the five general processes. Therefore process engineering deals with all five general processes

Product Engineering

The product to be manufactured is first conceived by the engineer. This engineer determines the

need for a product. It may be an entirely new product or new model of the old product. Experimental

designs are made, and scale models are made and tested. Finally a production design is created

after all faults have been corrected. Part prints are drawn to illustrate the product graphically. All

dimensions and specifications required are included on the print. The material to be used in the

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product is specified, and product name and number is included. Functions of a product engineering

department can be itemized as follows:

A.)Design Product for Function

1. Build model for testing

2. Provide part prints:

a) Physical dimensions

b) Material

c) Special process required such as painting plating, heat treatment, testing etc.

3. Provide tool design and construction aids:

a) Master layouts

b) Templates

c) Master models.

4. Provide specifications or standards manual

a) Material specification

b) Specification for testing and inspection

c) Procedures for testing and inspection

d) Specification for threads, gears, keys, splines etc.

e) Procedures and specifications for joining process

B.) Design the Product for Customer Satisfaction

1. Sales appeal

a) Appearance

b) Improvements

c) Design to meet the needs of the customer

2. Durability and life expectancy

C.) Design the Product for Cost

1. Cost should be low enough to compete in market

2. Cost should be high enough to provide profit

3. Cost should be in correct relationship with durability and life expectancy

D.) Design the Product for ease of Maintenance and Assembly

1. Ease of repair

2. Ease of assembly and disassembly

3. Provide drawing for maintenance and assembly

The product engineer must transmit the Information to the process engineer so that work may

continue. Paper work passing from product to Process engineer includes:

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A. Paper prints

B. Engineering releases

i. Production rate per year

ii. Sub-assembly and assembly numbers

iii. Release date-date on which processing, tooling and all planning may start.

iv. Part name, number and material.

C. Change in part prints when revision are made

D. Change in engineering releases

Process Engineering

Process engineering takes place directly after product engineering has completed the design of

product. It takes the information from product engineer and they create the plan for manufacture

Processing is then the function of determining exactly how a product will be mode

A. To determine the manufacturing process to be used

B. To determine the order of sequence of operation necessary to manufacture the part

Operation routing or line up

Process pictures

C. To determine and order the tooling and gauges needed to manufacture the part

1. Orders to design

Orders to build

Orders to buy

D. To determine, select and order the equipment needed to manufacture the part

E. To determine need for and originate orders for all process revisions necessary when part

print changes occur

F. To follow up the tooling and equipment to determine if all if all is functioning as planned and

if not, make the necessary revisions

G. To provide estimates of cost of tooling and equipment needed to manufacture new products

H. To determine part changes necessary to ease manufacture or reduce cost and request part

print changes

I. To take part in product study groups to assist the product engineer in the design of a

product that will be feasible and economical to make

Failure to use a better, low cost or safer process due to ignorance may result into drastic losses.

Codes and standards are governed by the ASME, ILO AND ISO.

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1.5.4 Building Construction

The word standard is used here as a qualifier for words such as the properties, test methods, or

the method of installation. Thus, a standard, in fact, refers to one of the following:

Standard specification; this deals with the quality of materials, products and components.

Standard test method; this determines the particular performance of a product or system

through a test including methods of sampling and quality control.

Standard method of practice-construction practice, installation practice, or maintenance

practice; this includes specific fabrication, installation, and erection methods of a component,

including its maintenance.

A standard should not be confused with a building code provision.

By far the largest and most referenced standards-producing organizations are those whose main

function is to produce standards. In countries other than the United States, this task is normally

handled by a single umbrella organization at the national level. In Britain, there is the British

Standards Institution (BSI), in Australia, the Standards Association of Australia (SAA), and in

Germany, the Deutsches Institute fur Normung (DIN). Three primary standards-producing

organizations in the U.S. are

(ASTM)

Founded in 1918, ANSI is a nongovernmental and privately financed body, obtaining its funding

primarily from membership dues and the sale of its publications. However, it represents the

United States in the International Standards Organization (ISO).

CUBIC; Caribbean uniform building code governs construction standards within the Caribbean.

This includes Antigua and Barbuda, Jamaica, St.Kitts and Nevis, Montserrat, Dominica, St. Lucia,

St. Vincent, Grenada, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Belize. However, standards are

not fully adopted.

According to CUBIC standards for hurricane and earthquake resistance the designed building

must be:

1. a simple diaphragm building;

2. a low rise building;

3. enclosed and conform to the wind borne debris provisions;

4. a regular shaped building or structure;

5. not classified as a flexible building;

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6. not assessed as having unfavourable aerodynamic characteristics and not having an

unfavourable site location;

7. of a structure with no expansion joints or separations;

8. not subject to unfavourable topographic effects;

9. Of an approximately symmetrical cross section.

Standards

During the early stages of design, an architect generally needs to obtain a rough idea of the total

volume of the buil

the maximum allowable area of the building and its maximum allowable height, as per the building

code. The allowable area and height of a building are a function of the following four factors:

Width of accessible open spaces around the building (frontage)

Whether or not the building is provided throughout with automatic sprinklers

Sometimes, the total area and height of

In that case, the architect would determine the minimum type of construction required to satisfy

the code and whether or not to provide added safety measures.

1.6 Practising occupational health, safety and welfare standards

1.6.1 Practising safety standards for workshop and worksite:

Inventory of materials, tools and equipment;

Worksheets and log books are essential for transparency and reconstruction of the

inventory.

Adequate, updated and correct inventory records are to be set up and maintained in each

organization offices.

All transactions of all inventory are to be properly documented and sufficient audit trail is

to be submitted.

In the classification of the items, the same definitions should be used. These guidelines

should apply to all Non-expandable and attractive items.

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Workshop/worksite layout diagrams;

These are used to promote safe storage and handling of machines, materials and equipment.

Hazard Points

Various techniques are available to control hazards on the worksite;

Mechanical hazards may be engineered out of the process, or effectively enclosed by means of

fixed guarding. Alternative forms of guarding involve the use of interlocked guards, light-

sensitive barriers or pressure-sensitive mats. Trip devices and other form of emergency stops

may also be incorporated.

Hazard from the working environment may be controlled by effective ventilation system,

adequate heating and lighting, and general provision of good working conditions.

Chemical hazards may also be controlled by effective ventilation, regular monitoring, substitution

of material, change of process, purchasing controls and the use of protective equipment. A

necessary corollary of hazard assessment is the establishment of safe system of work and training

for the work force to make them aware of the hazards in their work areas, and of the methods for

the control of such hazards.

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Safety Signs and Symbols

The rules and regulations of the working environment are communicated to employees by written

instructions, signs and symbols. All signs in the working environment are intended to inform. They

should give warning of possible dangers and must be obeyed.

Prohibition Signs

These are must not do signs. These are circular white signs with a red border and Red Cross bar.

They indicate an activity which must not be done.

Warning Signs

Warning signs give safety information. These are

triangular yellow signs with a black border and

symbol. They give warning of a hazard or danger.

Mandatory Signs

These are must do signs. These are circular blue

signs with a white symbol. They give instructions

which must be obeyed.

Advisory or Safe Condition Signs

These are square or rectangular green signs with a

white symbol. They give information about safety

provision.

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Marking Out Safety Lanes

Safety lanes provide access for workers on and around the site. Lanes should be free from

obstruction and from exposure to hazards such as falling materials, materials-handling equipment.

They are usually marked by arrows and appropriate signs.

Safety Manuals

Safety Manuals help to inform employees of safety, health and welfare conditions on construction

sites in your country and to learn about possible solutions to the problems you encounter. They

cover all aspects use of related tools, equipment and regulations for workshops and worksites

including:

Safety organization and management

Site planning and layout

Excavations, scaffolding and use of ladders

Hazardous processes

Movement of materials

Working positions, tools and equipment

The working environment

Personal protective equipment

Welfare facilities

The Principles of Ergonomics

1. Management involvement demonstrated through the priority placed on eliminating the

ergonomic hazards.

2. A policy which places safety and health on the same level of importance as production.

3. Commitment to assign and communicate responsibility.

4. Commitment to provide adequate authority and resources.

5. Commitment to ensure that [all are held] accountable for carrying out [their]

responsibilities.

Personal Protective Equipment

The working conditions in construction are in most cases such that, despite all preventive measures

in project planning and work design, some personal protective equipment (PPE), such as a helmet,

hearing and eye protection, harness, boots and gloves, is needed to protect workers.

1.6.2 Environmental safety practices:

Types of Wastes

Environmental laws protect the environment in which we live by setting standards for the control

of pollution to land, air and water. Listed as:

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Chemical pollution control by Local Authorities

Wastes on land

Litter

Carcinogenic Substances (asbestos)

Genetically modified organisms

Miscellaneous, including contaminated land.

Waste Disposal

On site you are responsible for the waste that you produce, even after you have passed it on to

another party such as a Solid Waste company, a Scrap Metal dealer, recycling company or local

authority;

Make sure that waste is only transferred to an authorized company.

Make sure that waste being transferred is accompanied by the appropriate paperwork

showing what was taken, where it was to be taken and by whom.

Segregate the different types of waste that your work creates.

Label waste skips and waste containers so that it is clear to everyone what type of waste

goes into that skip.

Minimize the waste that you produce and do not leave waste behind for someone else to

clear away. Remember there is no time limit on your Duty of Care for waste

Recycling

Reduce, reuse, and recycle are considered to be the three most important tenets of sustainable

construction. These tenets are listed in order of their importance. The first tenet (reduce), in

fact, far outweighs that of the other two in importance. Although a great deal of stress is currently

being placed on reusability and recyclability, the same level of concern is lacking for appropriate

sizing of buildings, automobiles, and other items of human consumption. Regardless of how

successful we are with reusability and recyclability, sustainability will not be achieved without

seriously addressing reduction.

1.6.3 Safety and Maintenance Standards:

Using equipment, tools and materials associated with electrical installation, electronics, building

construction and metal work engineering:

There are basic considerations in selecting, using and maintaining hand tools:

avoid static load at the shoulder or arm due to the continuous holding of a tool at a raised

position or the gripping of a heavy tool;

avoid awkward wrist angles while using tools such as snips and pliers;

reduce uncomfortable pressure on the palm or joints of the hand, e.g. from pliers that are

too small;

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select the correct weight, size and tool for the job;

use only tools of good-quality steel tools made of inferior steel chip and may even

shatter when struck, tool heads mushroom, tool jaws open out and cutting tools lose their

edge;

handles should have a smooth finish, should be easy to grasp and should have no sharp

edges or corners;

tools should be firmly fixed and should be regularly checked for splits and cracks; wedges

should be checked for tightness of fit;

tools should be kept free of grease and dirt, and moving and adjustable parts should be

well oiled;

cutting edges should be kept sharp for accurate working and to avoid the need for

unnecessary pressure;

for work on or near electrical apparatus only properly insulated tools should be used;

tools should be properly stored in boxes, racks, holders or pocket belts and should not be

left so that they can fall, roll or be tripped over; cutting edges should be sheathe

damaged tools should be immediately repaired or replaced

Safety rules for maintaining, using and storing materials, tools and equipment;

avoid static load at the shoulder or arm due to the continuous holding of a tool at a raised

position or the gripping of a heavy tool;

avoid awkward wrist angles while using tools such as snips and pliers;

reduce uncomfortable pressure on the palm or joints of the hand, e.g. from pliers that are

too small;

select the correct weight, size and tool for the job;

use only tools of good-quality steel tools made of inferior steel chip and may even

shatter when struck, tool heads mushroom, tool jaws open out and cutting tools lose their

edge;

handles should have a smooth finish, should be easy to grasp and should have no sharp

edges or corners;

tools should be firmly fixed and should be regularly checked for splits and cracks; wedges

should be checked for tightness of fit;

tools should be kept free of grease and dirt, and moving and adjustable parts should be

well oiled;

cutting edges should be kept sharp for accurate working and to avoid the need for

unnecessary pressure;

for work on or near electrical apparatus only properly insulated tools should be used;

tools should be properly stored in boxes, racks, holders or pocket belts and should not be

left so that they can fall, roll or be tripped over; cutting edges should be sheathed;

damaged tools should be immediately repaired or replaced.

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Using Testing, Measuring and Safety Devices;

1. First connect the test device to the supply which is to be isolated. The test device should

indicate mains voltage.

2. Next, isolate the supply and observe that the test device now reads zero volts.

3. Then connect the same test device to a known live supply or proving unit such as that to

4. Finally secure the isolation and place warning signs; only then should work commence.

If the fault finding and testing can only be successfully carried out live then the person

carrying out the fault diagnosis must:

be trained so that they understand the equipment and the potential hazards of working

only use approved test equipment;

Set up appropriate warning notices and barriers so that the work activity does not create

a situation dangerous to others.

Carrying Out Risk Assessments

A record of all significant risk assessment findings must be kept in a safe place and be made

available to a Health and Safety warden if required. Information based on the risk assessment

findings must be communicated to relevant staff and if changes in work behaviour patterns are

recommended in the interests of safety, then they must be put in place. So risk assessment must

employer only needs

of household risks. Staff are expected to read and to act upon these formal risk assessments and

they are unlikely to do so enthusiastically if the file is full of trivia. An assessment of risk is nothing

more than a careful examination of what, in your work, could cause harm to people. It is a record

that shows whether sufficient precautions have been taken to prevent harm.

Step 1

Look at what might reasonably be expected to cause harm. Ignore the trivial and concentrate only

on significant hazards that could result in serious harm or injury. data sheets or

instructions can also help you spot hazards and put risks in their true perspective.

Step 2

Decide who might be harmed and how. Think about people who might not be in the workplace all

the time cleaners, visitors, contractors or maintenance personnel. Include members of the

public or people who share the workplace. Is there a chance that they could be injured by

activities taking place in the workplace?

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Step 3

Evaluate what is the risk arising from an identified hazard. Is it adequately controlled or should

more be done? Even after precautions have been put in place, some risk may remain. What you have

to decide, for each significant hazard, is whether this remaining risk is low, medium or high. First

of all, ask yourself if you have done all the things that the law says you have got to do. For example,

there are legal requirements on the prevention of access to dangerous machinery. Then ask yourself

whether generally accepted industry standards are in place, but do not stop there think for

yourself, because the law also says that you must do what is reasonably practicable to keep the

workplace safe. Your real aim is to make all risks small by adding precautions, if necessary.

If you find that something needs to be done, ask yourself:

(i) Can I get rid of this hazard altogether?

(ii) If not, how can I control the risk so that harm is unlikely?

Only use PPE when there is nothing else that you can reasonably do. If the work that you do

varies a lot, or if there is movement between one site and another, select those hazards which

you can reasonably foresee, the ones that apply to most jobs and assess the risks for them.

After that, if you spot any unusual hazards when you get on site, take what action seems

necessary.

Step 4

Record your findings and say what you are going to do about risks that are not adequately

controlled. If there are fewer than five employees you do not need to write anything down but if

there are five or more employees, the significant findings of the risk assessment must be recorded.

This means writing down the more significant hazards and assessing if they are adequately

controlled and recording your most important conclusions. There is no need to show how the

assessment was made, providing you can show that:

1. A proper check was made,

2. You asked those who might be affected,

3. You dealt with all obvious and significant hazards,

4. The precautions are reasonable and the remaining risk is low,

5. You informed your employees about your findings.

Risk assessments need to be suitable and sufficient, not perfect. The two main points are:

1. Are the precautions reasonable?

2. Is there a record to show that a proper check was made?

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File away the written Assessment in a dedicated file for future reference or use. It can help if

an HSE Inspector ques or if the company becomes involved in any

legal action. It shows that the company has done what the law requires.

Step 5

Review the assessments from time to time and revise them if necessary.

Completing a Risk Assessment

Step 1

List only hazards which you could reasonably expect to result in significant harm under the

conditions prevailing in your workplace. Use the following examples as a guide:

Slipping or tripping hazards (e.g. from poorly maintained or partly installed floors and

stairs).

Fire (e.g. from flammable materials you might be using, such as solvents).

Chemicals (e.g. from battery acid).

Moving parts of machinery (e.g. blades).

Rotating parts of hand tools (e.g. drills).

Accidental discharge of cartridge operated tools.

High pressure air from airlines (e.g. air powered tools).

Pressure systems (e.g. steam boilers).

Vehicles (e.g. fork lift trucks).

Electricity (e.g. faulty tools and equipment).

Dust (e.g. from grinding operations or thermal insulation).

Fumes (e.g. from welding).

Manual handling (e.g. lifting, moving or supporting loads).

Noise levels too high (e.g. machinery).

Poor lighting levels (e.g. working in temporary or enclosed spaces).

Low temperatures (e.g. working outdoors or in refrigeration plant).

High temperatures (e.g. working in boiler rooms or furnaces).

Step 2

Decide who might be harmed, do not list individuals by name. Just think about groups of people

doing similar work or who might be affected by your work:

Office staff

Electricians

Maintenance personnel

Other contractors on site

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Operators of equipment

Cleaners

Members of the public.

Pay particular attention to those who may be more vulnerable, such as:

staff with disabilities,

visitors,

young or inexperienced staff,

People working in isolation or enclosed spaces.

Step 3

Calculate what the risk is is it adequately controlled? Have you already taken precautions to

protect against the hazards which you have listed in Step 1. For example:

Have you provided adequate information to staff?

Have you provided training or instruction?

Do the precautions already taken

meet the legal standards required,

comply with recognized industrial practice,

represent good practice,

Reduce the risk as far as is reasonably practicable.

Step 4

Further action what more could be done to reduce those risks which were found to be

inadequately controlled? You will need to give priority to those risks that affect large numbers of

people or which could result in serious harm. Senior managers should apply the principles below

when taking action, if possible in the following order:

1. Remove the risk completely.

2. Try a less risky option.

3. Prevent access to the hazard (e.g. by guarding).

4. Organize work differently in order to reduce exposure to the hazard.

5. Issue PPE.

6. Provide welfare facilities (e.g. washing facilities for removal of contamination and first

aid).

Any hazard identified by a risk assessment as high risk must be brought to the attention of the

person responsible for health and safety within the company.

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1.6.4 Standards for fire prevention and response:

When working in locations containing stored flammable materials such as petrol, paraffin, diesel

or bottled gas, there is always the risk of fire.

Rules for fire prevention in the workshop and on a worksite;

Take account of the risk assessment before work commences

keep the area well ventilated,

locate the fire extinguishers,

secure your exit from the area,

locate the nearest fire alarm point,

follow a safe working procedure and put adequate emergency arrangements in place before

work commences

Fires are divided into four classes or categories:

Class A wood, paper and textile fires.

Class B liquid fires such as paint, petrol and oil.

Class C fires involving gas or spilled liquefied gas.

Class D very special types of fi re involving burning metal.

Rules for handling the different types of fires:

Fire is a chemical reaction which will continue if fuel, oxygen

and heat are present. To eliminate a fire one of these

components must be removed. This is often expressed by

means of the fire triangle all three corners of the triangle

must be present for a fire to burn.

In the event of fire you should:

raise the alarm;

turn off machinery, gas and electricity supplies in the area of the fire;

close doors and windows but without locking or bolting them;

remove combustible materials and fuels away from the path of the fire, if the fire is small,

and if this can be done safely;

attack small fires with the correct extinguisher

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Fire extinguishers

The base colour of all

fire extinguishers is red,

with a different

coloured flash to

indicate the type.

1.6.5 Health and

wellness standards:

Under the Health and Safety at Work Act an employer has a duty to care for the health and

safety of employees. To do this he has a responsibility to ensure that:

The working conditions and standard of hygiene are appropriate;

the plant, tools and equipment are properly maintained;

safe systems of work are in place;

safe methods of handling, storing and transporting goods and materials are used;

there is a system for reporting accidents in the workplace;

the company has a written Health & Safety Policy statement;

the necessary safety equipment such as personal protective equipment (PPE), dust

and fume extractors and machine guards are available and properly used;

The workers are trained to use equipment and plant safely.

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Employees have a duty to care for their own health and safety and that of others who may be

affected by their actions.

take reasonable care to avoid injury to themselves or others as a result of their work

activity;

co-operate with their employer, helping him or her to comply with the requirements of the

act;

not interfere with or misuse anything provided to protect their health and safety

1.6.6 Basic First Aid standards:

Definitions:

First Aid

is the treatment of minor injuries which would otherwise receive no treatment or do not

need treatment by a doctor

is treatment for the purpose of preserving life and minimizing the consequences of an

is the initial assistance or treatment given to a casualty for any injury or sudden illness

before the arrival of an ambulance, doctor or other medically qualified person..

First Aider; is someone who has undergone a training course to administer first aid at work and

holds a current first aid certificate. The training course and certification must be approved by

the relevant authorities. The aims of a first aider are to preserve life, to limit the worsening of

the injury or illness and to promote recovery.

First Aid station; is an area established to provide aid supplies to employees or medical first aid

and provisions during work hours, emergency response situations, or PPE distribution. Aid stations

may be divided into sections where the station serves both medical and non-medical functions. A

first aid station should be clearly signposted, easily accessible and contain:

(i) a sink and drinking water;

(ii) first aid materials (which may include protective equipment and blankets);

(iii)a cot/ bed

(iv)a telephone or other communication equipment;

(v) A record book for recording incidents.

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First Aid kit;

Recommended contents

First aid procedures which should be practised under expert guidance before they are required in

an emergency.

Bleeding

If the wound is dirty, rinse it under clean running water. Clean the skin around the wound and apply

a plaster, pulling the skin together. If the bleeding is severe apply direct pressure to reduce the

bleeding and raise the limb if possible. Apply a sterile dressing or pad and bandage firmly before

obtaining professional advice. To avoid possible contact with hepatitis or the HIV virus, when

dealing with open wounds, first aiders should avoid contact with fresh blood by wearing plastic or

rubber protective gloves, or by allowing the casualty to apply pressure to the bleeding wound.

Burns

Remove heat from the burn to relieve the pain by placing the injured part under clean cold water.

Do not remove burnt clothing sticking to the skin. Do not apply lotions or ointments. Do not break

blisters or attempt to remove loose skin. Cover the injured area with a clean dry dressing.

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Broken bones

Make the casualty as comfortable as possible by supporting the broke limb either by hand or with

padding. Do not move the casualty unless by remaining in that position he is likely to suffer further

injury. Obtain professional help as soon as possible.

Contact with chemicals

Wash the affected area very thoroughly with clean cold water. Remove any contaminated clothing.

Cover the affected area with a clean sterile dressing and seek expert advice. It is a wise precaution

to treat all chemical substances as possibly harmful; even commonly used substances can be

dangerous if contamination

is from concentrated

solutions. When handling

dangerous substances it is

also good practice to have

a neutralizing agent to

hand.

Exposure to Toxic Fumes

Get the casualty into fresh

air quickly and encourage

deep breathing if conscious. Resuscitate if breathing has

stopped. Obtain expert medical advice as fumes may

cause irritation of the lungs.

Asphyxiation

Asphyxiation is a condition caused by lack of air in the

lungs leading to suffocation. Suffocation may cause

discomfort by making breathing difficult or it may kill by

stopping the breathing. There is a risk of asphyxiation

to workers when:

working in confined spaces,

working in poorly ventilated spaces,

working in paint stores and spray booths,

working in the petro-chemical industry,

working in any environment in which toxic fumes

and gases are present

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Sprains and bruising

A cold compress can help to relieve swelling and pain. Soak a towel or cloth in cold water, squeeze

it out and place it on the injured part. Renew the compress every few minutes.

Breathing stopped Resuscitation

Remove any restrictions from the face and any vomit, lose or false teeth from the mouth. Loosen

tight clothing around the neck, chest and waist. To ensure a good airway, lay the casualty on his

back and support the shoulders on some padding. Tilt the head backwards and open the mouth. If

the casualty is faintly breathing, lifting the tongue clear of the airway may be all that is necessary

to restore normal breathing. However, if the casualty does not begin to breathe, open your mouth

th your fingers, and, sealing

your lips around his mouth, blow into his lungs until the chest rises. Remove your mouth and watch

damaged or you have difficul

inflate the lungs through his nostrils. Give artificial respiration until natural breathing is restored

or until professional help arrives.

Heart stopped beating chest compressions

This sometimes happens follo

of his eyes widely dilated and the pulse in his neck cannot be felt, then he may have gone into

cardiac arrest. Act quickly and lay the casualty on his back. Kneel down beside him and place the

heel of one hand in the centre of his chest. Cover this hand with your other hand and interlace the

fingers. Straighten your arms and press down on his chest sharply with the heel of your hands and

then release the pressure. Continue to do this 15 times at the rate of one push per second. Check

chest compressions. Continue this procedure until the heartbeat is restored and the artificial

respiration until normal breathing returns. Pay close attention to the condition of the casualty while

giving heart massage. When a pulse is restored the blueness around the mouth will quickly go away

and you should stop the heart massage. Look carefully at the rate of breathing. When this is also

normal, stop giving artificial respiration. Treat the casualty for shock, place him in the recovery

position and obtain professional help.

Shock

Everyone suffers from shock following an accident. The severity of the shock depends upon the

nature and extent of the injury. In cases of severe shock the casualty will become pale and his skin

become clammy from sweating. He may feel faint, have blurred vision, feel sick and complain of

thirst. Reassure the casualty that everything that needs to be done is being done. Loosen tight

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clothing and keep him warm and dry until help arrives. Do not move him unnecessarily or give him

anything to drink.

Electric Shock

Switch off the supply if possible.

Alternatively, remove the person from the supply without touching him, for example, push

him off with a piece of wood, pull him off with a scarf, dry towel or coat.

If breathing or heart has stopped, immediately call professional help by dialling 999 or 112

and asking for the ambulance service. Give precise directions to the scene of the accident.

The casualty stands the best chance of survival if the emergency services can get a rapid

response paramedic team quickly to the scene. They have extensive training and will have

specialist equipment with them.

Only then should you apply resuscitation or cardiac massage until the patient recovers, or

help arrives.

Treat for shock.

Reporting an accident and getting assistance;

When you call 999 or 911 you will be asked what service you require and also:

your telephone number

the address you are at

what is wrong with the casualty and are they unconscious, not breathing or bleeding

You may be offered advice as to how to assist the casualty until help arrives.

Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation

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Preparing an Accident Report

Every accident must be reported to an employer and minor accidents reported to a supervisor,

safety officer or first aider and the details of the accident and treatment given suitably

documented. A first aid logbook or accident book such as shown below, containing first aid

treatment record sheets could be used to effectively document accidents which occur in the

workplace and the treatment given. Failure to do so may influence the payment of compensation at

a later date if an injury leads to permanent disability.

They will require the following information:

The name of the person injured.

A summary of what happened.

A summary of events prior to the accident.

Information about the injury or loss sustained.

Details of witnesses.

Date and time of accident.

Name of the person reporting the incident

In addition to recording the above information, the employer or his representative should:

Sketch diagrams of how the accident occurred, where objects were before and after the

accident, where the victim fell, etc.

Take photographs or video that show how things were after the accident, for example,

broken stepladders, damaged equipment, etc.

Collect statements from witnesses. Ask them to write down what they saw.

Record the circumstances surrounding the accident. Was the injured person working alone

in the dark in some other adverse situation or condition was PPE being worn was PPE

recommended in that area?

1.6.7 Basic emergency response standards.

National laws and regulations are often based upon international conventions, agreements,

declarations and programmes. These have been drawn up by different United Nations organizations

including the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).

1.6.8 Getting professional help when an accident occurs:

An industrial accident may be defined as an event, detrimental (harmful) to the health of man,

suddenly occurring and originating from external sources, and which is associated with the

performance of a paid job, accompanied by an injury, followed by disability or even death. Assessing

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and controlling hazardous substances spillages and leakages of chemicals and other hazardous

substances;

Evacuation procedures

When the fire alarm sounds you must leave the building immediately by any one of the escape routes

indicated. Exit routes are usually indicated by a green and white symbol. Evacuation

should be orderly, do not run but walk purposefully to your designated assembly point.

Exit routes are usually indicated by a green and white running symbol. Evacuation should be

orderly, do not run but walk purposefully to your designated assembly point. The purpose of an

assembly point is to get you away from danger to a place of safety where you will not be in the way

of the emergency services. The purpose of an assembly point is to get you away from danger to a

place of safety where you will not be in the way of the emergency services. It also allows for people

to be accounted for and to make sure that no one is left in the building or on site. You must not re-

enter the building/ site until a person in authority gives permission to do so. An evacuation in a real

emergency can be a frightening experience, especially if you do not really know what to do, so take

time to familiarize yourself with the fire safety procedures where you are working before an

emergency occurs.

1.6.9 Types of workshop hazards:

Accidents and Preventative Procedures

Falls and slippages

As a worker you can make a major contribution to safe working conditions on site by attention to

tidiness. There are many accidents due to tripping, slipping or falling over materials and equipment

which have been left lying around, and stepping on nails which have been left projecting from

timber.

Be sure you take the following steps:

Clean up as you go do not leave rubbish and scrap for the next person to clear.

Keep gangways, working platforms and stairways clear of equipment and materials not in

immediate use.

Clean up spilled oil and grease

Deposit waste material at a recognized disposal point.

Remove or hammer down any nails you see projecting from timber

Strains

Almost one-quarter of work injuries occur during manual handling, most of which are strains to the

hands, legs, feet and back. Much construction work involves heavy manual labour and workers not in

good physical condition tire easily and are more susceptible to injury. The size, shape and structure

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of the material will largely determine how easy or difficult manual handling will be. Well-designed

and well-placed handles are of great help. Whenever you lift a load, follow the following procedure:

Stand close to the load on a firm footing and with feet about 30 cm apart.

Bend the knees and keep your back as straight as you can.

Take a firm grip on the load.

Breathe in and throw the shoulders backwards.

Straighten the legs, continuing to keep the back as straight as you can.

Make sure that your view is not obstructed by the load.

Keep the load close to the body.

Lift slowly and smoothly.

When carrying a load, avoid twisting the spine to turn; move your feet instead.

If two or more of you are lifting, one should give instructions to ensure that the team

works together.

Improper use of machines, tools and equipment include:

1. Unsafe mechanical design or construction

2. Hazardous arrangement (pilling, over-loading, etc.)

3. Improper machine guarding.

4. Unsafe apparel

5. Defective devices

6. Improper material handling

7. Leaking valves

8. Untested boilers or pressure vessels, inhalation of toxic fumes.

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1.7.1 Social and economic impact of industries in the Caribbean

7.1Trade Blocks:

(i) CARICOM; The Caribbean Community is an organization of 15 Caribbean nations and

dependencies. CARICOM's main purposes are to promote economic integration and cooperation

among its members, to ensure that the benefits of integration are equitably shared, and to

coordinate foreign policy. Its major activities involve coordinating economic policies and

development planning; devising

and instituting special

projects for the less-

developed countries within its

jurisdiction; operating as a

regional single market for

many of its members (Caricom

Single Market); and handling

regional trade disputes. The

secretariat headquarters is

based in Georgetown, Guyana.

Members;

1. Antigua and Barbuda

2. The Bahamas

3. Barbados

4. Belize

5. Dominica

6. Grenada

7. Guyana

8. Haiti

9. Jamaica

10. Montserrat

11. Saint Lucia

12. St. Kitts and Nevis

13. St. Vincent and the Grenadines

14. Suriname

15. Trinidad and Tobago

CARICOM ASSOCIATE MEMBERS

1. Anguilla - 4 July 1999

2. Bermuda - 2 July 2003

3. British Virgin Islands - 2 July 1991

4. Cayman Islands - 15 May 2002

5. Turks and Caicos Islands - 2 July 1991

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CSME; CARICOM Single Market and Economy or Caribbean Single Market and Economy is an

integrated development strategy envisioned at the 10th Meeting of the Conference of Heads of

Government of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) which took place in July 1989 in Grand Anse,

Grenada. The Grand Anse Declaration had three key Features:

1. Deepening economic integration by advancing beyond a common market towards a Single

Market and Economy.

2. Widening the membership and thereby expanding the economic mass of the Caribbean

Community (e.g. Suriname and Haiti were admitted as full members in 1995 and 2002

respectively).

3. Progressive insertion of the region into the global trading and economic system by

strengthening trading links with non-traditional partners.

CARIFORUM; is a subgroup of the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States and serves as a

base for economic dialogue with the European Union. It was established in 1992. Its membership

comprises the 15 Caribbean Community states, along with the Dominican Republic.

1.7.2 Entrepreneurial opportunities that lead to self-employment:

Productivity and Wealth Creation

Entrepreneurs create social and economic wealth through the creation of companies and jobs, as

well as frequently innovating through the development of new products and services

Career and employment opportunities

New process-based ventures often revolve around simple, organisational improvements rather

than the launch of a new product.

Personal advancement

Individuals with entrepreneurial mind-sets are often drawn to opportunities, innovation and new

value creation. This refers to a specific state of mind which orientates human conduct towards

entrepreneurial activities and outcomes. Set goals or benchmarks that define the end-points,

strategies or plans for reaching goals, measurement and assessment of progress, levels or stages

that define milestones along a development path, and a feedback system to provide information on

changes.

Entrepreneurial opportunities

An Entrepreneurial opportunity emerges at the nexus of individual aspirations with economic and

social conditions perceived as favourable to create a new product or service, either in an existing

market or a new one.