respiratory system
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The Respiratory System
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Overview of the Respiratory System and Respiratory Tract
The respiratory system includes:
Nose
Nasal cavity
Paranasal sinuses
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli
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Upper and Lower Respiratory System
Upper Respiratory System:
Comprises the nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx.
Lower Respiratory System:
Comprises the larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, bronchioles, and alveoli.
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Structures of the Respiratory System
Upper Respiratory System:
Posterior nasal apertures
Nasal conchae
Pharynx
Lower Respiratory System:
Larynx
Trachea
Main Bronchi
Bronchioles
Lungs (Right and Left)
Diaphragm
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Functions of the Respiratory System
Provides an area for gas exchange between air and blood.
Moves air to and from exchange surfaces of the lungs.
Protects respiratory surfaces from dehydration.
Guards against invading pathogens.
Produces sound for verbal communication.
Assists in regulation of blood volume, pressure, and body fluid pH.
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Respiratory Epithelium
Types of Cells:
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Cells:
Found except in pharynx, smaller bronchi, and alveoli.
Stratified Squamous Cells:
Nonkeratinized, found in pharynx.
Mucus-Producing Cells:
Present in the nasal cavity and lower respiratory tract.
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Respiratory Epithelium Functions
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Cells:
Cilia move mucus to pharynx (mucociliary escalator).
Stratified Squamous Cells:
Protects against abrasion.
Mucous Cells:
Produce mucus to trap debris, preventing entry into lungs.
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Histology of the Respiratory Epithelium
Diagrammatic view:
Movement of mucus to the pharynx shown with ciliated columnar epithelial cell, mucous cell, and lamina propria labeled.
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Respiratory Defense System
Mechanisms:
Vibrissae (nose hairs) block inhaled debris.
Nasal cavity produces mucus to trap debris; sneezing removes it.
Mucociliary escalator moves debris upward toward the pharynx for expulsion.
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Pathway of Air: Upper Respiratory System
Air enters through external nares (nostrils).
Passes the nasal vestibule, entering the nasal cavity which is divided by the nasal septum.
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Airflow and Conditioning
Air flows around nasal conchae (superior, middle, inferior).
As air swirls, it warms and humidifies; debris gets trapped in mucus.
Air enters internal nares and nasopharynx.
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Diagram of the Upper Respiratory System
Includes detailed structures: Frontal sinus, nasal cavity, conchae, and other relevant anatomical parts.
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Anatomy of the Nose and Nasal Cavity
Nose Components:
Dorsum (bridge) and apex (tip)
Nasal bones
External nares
Septum (vomer and ethmoid)
Hard and soft palate.
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Anatomy of the Nose (Fig. 24.4)
Lateral nasal cartilage and various components of the nose labeled.
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Pharyngeal Structures
Detailed sagittal section of the head and neck highlighting pharynx and related structures.
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The Pharynx
Connects the nose, mouth, and throat; shared by respiratory and digestive systems.
Types:
Nasopharynx: Contains auditory tube.
Oropharynx: Back of the mouth area.
Laryngopharynx: Entrance to trachea and esophagus.
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Pharyngeal Anatomy (Fig. 24.4)
Anatomic details of the pharynx with specific openings labeled.
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Continuous Section of Pharynx
Further anatomical details regarding the pharynx.
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The Larynx Overview
Structure: Cylinder with cartilaginous walls stabilized by ligaments or muscles.
Begins at vertebra C3-C5, ends at C6-C7.
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Cartilages of the Larynx
Components:
Thyroid cartilage (laryngeal prominence).
Cricoid cartilage (encircles trachea).
Epiglottis (closes over glottis during swallowing).
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Anatomy of the Larynx (Fig. 24.6)
Anterior view showing laryngeal components.
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Anatomy of the Larynx (Posterior View)
Includes detailed components visible from the rear, showing the relationship among the individual laryngeal cartilages.
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Paired Laryngeal Cartilages
Includes:
Arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform cartilages, involved in glottis control.
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Anatomy of the Larynx (Continued)
Detailed posterior view of the larynx showing associated cartilages.
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Relationship of Laryngeal Cartilages
Detailed interactions of laryngeal cartilages.
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The Vocal Cords
Dynamics of vocal cords showing open and closed glottis positions.
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Laryngeal Ligaments
Types:
Intrinsic ligaments: Bind laryngeal cartilages.
Extrinsic ligaments: Connect thyroid cartilage to hyoid and cricoid.
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Vocal and Vestibular Ligaments
Vestibular ligaments (false vocal cords) vs. vocal ligaments (true vocal cords).
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Sound Production Mechanism
Air causes vocal folds to vibrate, creating sound.
Pitch is affected by vocal fold characteristics (length, tension).
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Vocal Cords Anatomy
Glottis positions with variations highlighted.
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Glottis Position Visualization
Differences in vocal fold position during closed and open states captured.
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Laryngeal Musculature
Intrinsic Muscles: Control vocal tension and glottis opening.
Extrinsic Muscles: Stabilize larynx; prevent food/liquid from entering during swallowing.
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The Swallowing Process
Sequential steps of swallowing, focusing on tongue, larynx, and epiglottis role.
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Characteristics of the Trachea
11 cm long, 2.5 cm diameter, bifurcates at T5.
Composed of C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings, annular ligaments connect them.
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Anatomy of the Trachea and Main Bronchi (Fig. 24.9)
Overview of trachea and bronchi relationships illustrated.
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Tracheal Lining
Layers include mucosa, respiratory epithelia, lamina propria, submucosa, and trachealis muscle.
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Histology of the Trachea
Cross-sectional view presents trachea structure with related components.
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Main Bronchi Formation
Trachea bifurcates at the carina into right and left main bronchi; the right bronchus is larger and steeper.
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Anatomy of the Trachea and Main Bronchi (Fig. 24.9a)
Anterior view and relationships of trachea and bronchi.
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Hilum of the Lung
Each main bronchus enters lungs at hilum; serves as entry/exit point for pulmonary vessels.
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Gross Anatomy of the Lungs
Right lung: 3 lobes; Left lung: 2 lobes with cardiac notch.
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Structure of the Lungs
Detailed division of lung lobes and presence of fissures.
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Lung Surfaces
Named for their contacts: costal, mediastinal, diaphragmatic surfaces.
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Structural Components of the Lungs
Trabeculae partitions containing elastic fibers, smooth muscles, and lymphatic vessels.
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Overview of Lung Positioning
Relations of lungs, heart, and other thoracic structures.
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Conclusion on Lung Structure
Recap of right and left lung anatomy and their mediastinal surfaces.
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Branching of the Main Bronchi
Main bronchi branch extensively into lobar and segmental bronchi within the lungs.
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Bronchi and Bronchioles Anatomy
Comparison of bronchi and bronchioles structures highlighting smooth muscle presence.
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Right Main Bronchus Branches
Breakdown of right main bronchus into lobar branches.
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Anatomy Reference of Main Bronchi (Fig. 24.9a)
Summary of important anatomical relationships in trachea and bronchi.
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Left Main Bronchus Branches
Division of left main bronchus into lobar bronchi.
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Continued Anatomy of Main Bronchi
Recap of anatomical features related to the bronchial pathways.
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Segmental Bronchi
Lobar bronchi divide into segmental bronchi for specific lung areas (bronchopulmonary segments).
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Bronchial Tree and Lungs Overview (Fig. 24.12a)
Visual depiction of bronchopulmonary segments and their spatial relationship.
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Further Bronchial Segment Relations (Fig. 24.12b)
Distinct color coding to show segmental divisions in lung anatomy.
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The Bronchioles
Bronchioles branch from segmental bronchi; contain smooth muscle for bronchodilation and constriction.
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Bronchi and Bronchioles Configuration
Overview of bronchi and bronchioles with related histological details.
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Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli
Alveolar ducts lead to alveolar sacs; extensive capillary network surrounds alveoli for gas exchange.
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Alveolar Structure Visualization
Description of lung lobules and alveolar anatomy depicted in diagrams.
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Alveolus Composition and Functions
Type I Alveolar Cells: Single layer lining for gas exchange.
Type II Alveolar Cells: Secrete surfactant to prevent alveolar collapse.
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Alveolar Arrangement and Blood Air Barrier
Interactions between alveolar cells, capillaries, and their structures for efficient gas exchange.
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Histology of Alveoli
Micrograph overview of lung tissue highlighting bronchi and alveoli.
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Gas Exchange Mechanism
Carbon dioxide and oxygen exchange across the alveolar-capillary interface.
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Composition of the Blood Air Barrier
Detailed structure of the barrier facilitating gas exchange within alveoli.
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Pleural Cavities Overview
Pleura Layers:
Visceral and parietal layers surrounding lungs; forms pleural cavity that contains fluid.
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Function of Pleural Cavity
Potential conditions affecting pleural fluid and resulting implications for respiration.
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Thoracic Cavity Relationships
Anatomy and relationships of pleura and associated thoracic structures.
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Pulmonary Ventilation Overview
Process of moving air into and out of lungs; includes classification of respiratory muscles.
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Primary Respiratory Muscles
Diaphragm: Main muscle for inhalation and exhalation.
External Intercostals: Aids in inhalation.
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Accessory Respiratory Muscles for Inhalation
Includes muscles such as serratus anterior and scalenes that assist during deep inhalation.
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Accessory Respiratory Muscles for Exhalation
Includes internal intercostals, abdominal muscles facilitating forced exhalation.
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Summary of Respiratory Muscle Functions (Fig. 24.16)
Overview of primary and accessory muscles used during breathing.
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Mechanics of Breathing
Summary of diaphragm and rib cage movement during inhalation.
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Active Inhalation Mechanics
Explanation of active breathing involving multiple muscle groups.
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Exhalation Mechanics
Details about active versus passive exhalation processes with involved muscles.
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Types of Respiratory Movements
Eupnea: Quiet breathing; Hyperpnea: Forced breathing during exertion.
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Changes at Birth
Overview of physiological changes; implications for respiration at birth.
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Fetal Circulation Changes at Birth
Anatomical changes in circulatory pathways at the time of birth detailed in a diagram.
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Aging and the Respiratory System
Overview of changes in respiratory efficiency with aging; includes elasticity loss and potential respiratory conditions.