The Delhi Sultanate

The Mamluk Dynasty

The years spanning 1206 CE-1526 CE in mediaeval Indian history came to be known as the Delhi Sultanate . After Muhammad Ghori’s death, the Indian empire was divided among his generals.        

One such successful general was Qutubbudin Aibak, who was a Turkish slave. He became the first sultan of Delhi in 1206 CE and founded the Slave dynasty also known as the Mamluk dynasty. The sultans of this dynasty thus came to be known as the Mamluk sultans. There were five dynasties that ruled Indian between 1206 CE-1526 CE, starting with the slave dynasty

The Slave Dynasty

The slave dynasty lasted for nearly a century in India. It marked the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate. The state was called a Sultanate because it was led by a sultan (a ruler).

Raziya Sultan (1236 CE-1239 CE)

Usually known as Raziya Sultan in history, Raziya was the first and only known sultan in India. She is amongst the most fascinating characters of the Delhi Sultanate. 

Iltutmish’s sons were incompetent, but his daughter Raziya was well educated and adept in military tactics. She was trained to lead an army in times of necessity. Therefore, Iltutmish nominated Raziya as his successor. However, his wish was considered offensive by the chahalgani. When Iltutmish died in 1236 ce, the nobles of the court refused to have a woman as the sultan. They disregarded the deceased sultan’s nominated successor and raised Ruknuddin Firuz Shah to the throne. However, Ruknuddin’s reign was short as he was an incapable ruler. In 1236 ce, he was assassinated. The nobility finally agreed to allow Raziya to be the sultan of Delhi. However, her appointment of Jamaluddin Yaku, an advisor of African descent, ti the high office ignited the jealousy of the Turkish nobility. Eventually, she was overthrown and her brother, Muizuddin Bahram Shah, usurped the throne. 

As a sultan, Raziya reportedly sought to abolish the tax on non-Muslims, but this was met with opposition from the nobility. Raziya established schools,academies, centres for research and public libraries. These libraries included the works of ancient philosophers, along with the Koran and commentaries on the traditions of Islam. 

The Khalji Dynasty

The Khaljis were of Turkish origin. However, the tribe had been settled in Afghanistan for long. They were the second dynasty to rule over the Delhi Sultanate. Their rule lasted from 1290 ce-1320 CE over a large area of the Indian subcontinent. 

Alauddin Khalji

Jalauddin was treacherously murdered by his ambitious nephew, Alauddin Khalji. The latter ascended the throne of Delhi in 1296 CE.

Alauddin’s Market and Military Reforms 

Alauddin was famous for his market policy, which was based on price control measures. Historians such as Ziauddin Barani and Ibn Battuta have indicated that Alauddin introduced these measures in order to lower the cost of maintaining an army. 

1. Alauddin controlled the prices of necessary goods so that his soldiers could buy goods and foods even at a lower salary. He set up 3 markets in Delhi- one for food grains, the second for cloth and the third for horses, slaves and cattle. Market officers such as shahna-i-mandi and barids (intelligence officers), were appointed to keep a strict watch on the prices and weights. 

2. The prices of all commodities were fixed. The price of essential items were fixed at low rates. 

3. Weights and measures were effectively standardised, and those caught hoarding and cheating were severely punished 

4. State warehouses were set up. These were stocked with food grains, which were released whenever there was a famine or shortage. 

Alauddin’s market policies were a huge success. These policies remained in operation throughout his reign. 

Alauddin realised the important role of a strong military force in maintaining the vast empire. He was the first sultan of Delhi to have a permanent standing army. 

1. Alaudddin introduced a system of branding horses (a system of dagh). He also maintained a detailed description of each soldier called chehra. 

2. Nobles were not allowed to maintain an army. 

3. The army was paid in cash and directly recruited by the sultan. 

4. Alauddin kept in touch with the army when it was on the move through an elaborate system of dak chauki. 

The Tughlaq, the Sayyid and the Lodi Dynasty  

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 Ce) 

The Tughlaq Dynasty went on to rule over large parts of the Indian subcontinent. The rule lasted for nearly a century. 

Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Muhammad bin Tughlaq ruled the empire from c. 1324 CE to 1351 CE. He was one of the most learned and accomplished scholars of his time. Historians are divided on the nature of his character. Some historians opine  that he was a 'mixture of opposites'. Although a talented ruler, Muhammad bin Tughlaq gained a reputation for taking controversial measures. 

Taxation in the Doab 

Muhammad bin Tughlaq realised the importance of a strong and powerful army to augment his position. Building a strong army needed additional revenue Therefore, he planned to increase the land revenue in the Ganga- Yamuna Doab region-the most fertile region of his kingdom. However, from 1335 CE to 1342 CE, there was a widespread famine in this region, and the people refused to pay taxes. The tax collectors were often ruthless and showed no mercy. The peasants abandoned their lands and fled to the jungles to escape the coercive practices of tax collection. When Muhammad bin Tughlaq learnt about this serious problem, he undertook some relief measures. He opened free kitchens, distributed free grain and granted loans to farmers. However, these measures came too late. Agricultural production suffered a major blow, which in turn affected revenue collection.

Transfer of Capital

 Muhammad bin Tuglaq’s decision to transfer the capital of the Sultanate also had adverse consequences. 

He selected a place called Deogri or Devagiri in the Deccan, which he named Daulatabad, as the new seat of the government. He forced the inhabitants of Delhi to migrate to the new capital. The transfer of capital was undertaken by the sultan for two reasons:

1. The sultan, keeping in view the repeated rebellions in the south, decided to shift the capital to a more central place.

2. He also wanted to keep his capital safe from repeated Mongol attacks.

According to Ibn  Battuta, a Moroccan traveller and a contemporary historian, the sultan ordered the transfer not only of his court and officials, but the entire population. Elaborate arrangements were made for the 1500-km Journey: A broad road, lined with trees on both sides, was built. Temporary shelters were also set up along the way, and free food and drinks were supplied during the Journey. However, the journey was long and arduous. Many perished on the long march  to Daulatabad. The operation was a total failure. After realising the unwillingness of his ministers, courtiers and soldiers to stay in Daulatabad, Muhammad bin Tughlaq ordered their return to Delhi.

Introduction of Token Currency

Another controversial measure taken by Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the introduction of token currency. The prolonged famine and expensive wars had severely strained the exchequer. Muhammad Tughlaq's solution was to issue copper coins or tokens, which carried the same value as gold and silver coins. However, he took no steps to ensure that the minting of coins remained the monopoly of the government. The result was severe dislocation of the economy. Counterfeiting became common because people knew how to make coins from alloys of copper and brass. Foreign merchants refused to accept the token currency, and trade came to a standstill. Fake coins were used to pay taxes to the government. Eventually, the sultan was forced to withdraw the token currency.

Scheme of Expansion

Muhammad bin Tughlaq also aimed at expanding his empire through a series of conquests. He sent an army to Khurasan, for which he spent a large amount of money on weapons and other supplies. However, he hastily abandoned this expedition a year later. An expedition to the Himachal region also inflicted heavy casualties on the army. As a result, the royal treasury was further depleted. Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in Sindh in 1351 CE. At that time, the Sultanate was on the path of gradual decline, and there were repeated rebellions in different parts of the empire. 

The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 CE)

Before leaving Delhi, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as his viceroy. In 1414 CE, Khizr Khan overthrew Mahmud Shah, the last Tughlaq ruler, and established the rule of the Sayyid dynasty.

In 1451 CE, the Sayyid dynasty was replaced by an Afghan dynasty called the Lodis, founded by Bahlul Lodi. 

THE LODI DYNASTY to know under (1451 CE-1526 CE)

The Lodi dynasty, the last ruling family of the Delhi Sultanate, was of Afghan origin. The first Lodi ruler was Bahlul Lodi. He was a powerful ruler who held together a volatile confederation of Afghan and Turkish chiefs.  When the Sayyids became weak, Bahlul Lodi first occupied the province of Punjab and then captured the throne of Delhi in 1451 ce. He took the title of Sultan Abul Muzaffar Bahlul Shah Ghazi.. After Bahlul Lodi ascended the throne, there were a number of attempts to destabilise the newly established rule. However, with the help of the Afghans, Bahlul managed to secure the foundations of the Lodi rule.

When Bahlul died in 1489 CE, his son Nizam Khan succeeded him. He assumed the title of Sikandar Lodi. He proved to be the most capable ruler of the Lodi dynasty.  He annexed Bihar and signed a treaty of friendship with Bengal Sikandar Lodi not only managed to crush revolts, but was also able to establish an administrative system. He was the founder of the historical city of Agra, and made it his capital.

 Ibrahim Lodi succeeded Sikandar Lodi After his succession, some of the Afghan nobles rebelled. However, he was successful in resisting them. He appointed senior nobles as governors in order to prevent further rebellions. However, these conspired together, and were responsible for his downfall. His uncle, Daulat Khan Lodi, to oust Ibrahim Lodi. In the First Battle of Panipat, which took place in 1526 CE, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi and established Mughal rule in India. With the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultanate period came to an end. However, the brief rule of the Lodis was not bereft of architectural activities. They introduced the style of building tombs in gardens, which was later adopted by the Mughals.