Phil midterrmmmm

1. Cultural Relativism – The belief that moral values and ethics are relative to specific cultures and societies. There are no universal moral truths; what is right or wrong depends on cultural context.

2. Psychological Egoism – A descriptive theory that suggests all human actions are motivated by self-interest, even when they appear altruistic.

3. Ethical Egoism – A normative ethical theory that argues individuals should act in their own self-interest and that this is morally right.

4. Aquinas' Theory of Natural Law – Thomas Aquinas’ theory states that moral laws are based on human nature and reason, and they are derived from a divine order. It suggests that good is to be done and pursued while evil is to be avoided.

5. Divine Command Theory – The view that morality is determined by God’s commands. Actions are right or wrong based on whether they align with divine will.

6. Social Contract Theory – The idea that moral and political obligations arise from an implicit contract among individuals to form a society. Thinkers like Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau contributed to this theory.

7. Classical Virtue Ethics – Originating with Aristotle, this theory emphasizes developing virtuous character traits (e.g., courage, temperance) as the key to moral living rather than following rigid rules.

8. Virtue-Based Theories – Ethical theories that emphasize moral character and virtues rather than rules or consequences. Focuses on being a good person rather than merely doing good acts.

9. Natural Law Theories – Philosophical theories suggesting that moral principles are inherent in nature and can be discovered through reason. They often align with religious perspectives but can also have secular interpretations.

10. Human Moral Sentimentalism – A theory that suggests moral judgments are based on human emotions and sentiments rather than reason alone. Thinkers like David Hume have contributed to this perspective.

11. Deontology – A moral theory associated with Immanuel Kant that emphasizes duty and rules. Actions are morally right if they follow a universal moral law, regardless of consequences.

12. Utilitarianism – A form of consequentialism that holds that the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or pleasure while minimizing pain. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill are key figures in this theory.

13. Consequentialism – A broader ethical theory that determines the morality of an action based on its consequences. Utilitarianism is a specific form of consequentialism.

Descriptive and Prescriptive Statements

• Descriptive Statements: Statements that describe how the world is, based on facts and observations (e.g., "People often help their friends").

• Prescriptive Statements: Statements that suggest how the world ought to be, expressing moral or ethical obligations (e.g., "People should help their friends").

2. Thick Ethical Concepts

• Ethical terms that carry both descriptive and evaluative meaning (e.g., "cruel," "brave," "kind").

• Contrast with "thin" ethical concepts like "good" or "bad," which lack specific descriptive content.

3. Euthyphro Dilemma

• A challenge to Divine Command Theory from Plato’s dialogue Euthyphro.

• Asks: "Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?"

• Highlights issues with grounding morality in divine will.

4. Aristotle

• Greek philosopher who developed virtue ethics.

• Focused on achieving eudaimonia (flourishing) through cultivating virtues.

• Proposed the "Golden Mean"—virtue lies between extremes of deficiency and excess.

5. David Hume and Empiricism

• Hume was a Scottish philosopher who emphasized experience and observation as sources of knowledge.

• Argued that moral judgments stem from emotions rather than reason.

• Developed the "is-ought problem," questioning how moral conclusions can be derived from factual statements.

6. Rationalism vs. Empiricism

• Rationalism: Belief that knowledge comes primarily from reason and innate ideas (e.g., Descartes, Kant).

• Empiricism: Belief that knowledge comes from sensory experience (e.g., Locke, Hume).

7. Moral Agent and Moral Patient

• Moral Agent: An individual capable of moral reasoning and responsible for actions (e.g., adult humans).

• Moral Patient: An entity that deserves moral consideration but may not have moral agency (e.g., animals, infants).

8. Monism and Pluralism

• Monism: The belief that there is only one fundamental moral principle or ultimate reality (e.g., utilitarianism).

• Pluralism: The belief that multiple moral principles or realities coexist (e.g., W.D. Ross’s prima facie duties).

9. Plato

• Greek philosopher and student of Socrates.

• Developed the Theory of Forms, arguing that abstract Forms (e.g., justice, goodness) exist beyond the physical world.

• Advocated for philosopher-kings in his work The Republic.

10. Immanuel Kant

• German philosopher who developed deontological ethics.

• Argued for the categorical imperative: moral laws must be universal and based on duty rather than consequences.

• Distinguished between noumenal (things as they are) and phenomenal (things as they appear) realities.

11. Analytic and A Priori Statements

• Analytic Statements: Statements that are true by definition (e.g., "All bachelors are unmarried").

• A Priori Knowledge: Knowledge that can be gained independent of experience (e.g., mathematical truths).

12. Theory of Right Action

• Examines what makes an action morally right or wrong.

• Includes deontological, consequentialist, and virtue-based approaches.

13. The Grounding Problem

• A philosophical issue regarding how moral claims can be justified or grounded.

• Asks whether moral truths are objective, subjective, or socially constructed.

14. Augustine of Hippo

• Early Christian philosopher who integrated Neoplatonism with Christian doctrine.

• Emphasized divine grace, original sin, and moral struggle.

• Advocated for a theocentric view of morality.

15. Thomas Aquinas

• Medieval philosopher and theologian who developed Natural Law Theory.

• Combined Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology.

• Argued that moral law is discoverable through reason and aligned with divine will.

16. Synthetic A Posteriori

• Statements that are both informative and based on experience (e.g., "Water boils at 100°C").

• Distinguished from analytic and a priori statements in Kantian philosophy.

17. Theory of the Good

• Explores what constitutes the ultimate good or intrinsic value in ethics.

• Different theories include hedonism, eudaimonism, and pluralistic theories of value.

18. Moral Objectivism

• The belief that moral principles are objective and independent of individual or cultural perspectives.

• Contrasts with moral relativism and subjectivism.

19. Thomas Hobbes

• Political philosopher known for his social contract theory.

• Argued that humans are naturally self-interested and require a strong central authority to maintain order (Leviathan).

20. Jeremy Bentham

• Founder of utilitarianism.

• Advocated for the "greatest happiness principle," where moral actions maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

• Developed the felicific calculus to measure pleasure and pain.

21. John Stuart Mill

• Expanded on Bentham’s utilitarianism by distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures.

• Argued for liberty and individual rights (On Liberty).

• Advocated for rule utilitarianism rather than act utilitarianism.