Harlow (1958):
Through rhesus Monekys
investigate the provision of food either by a surrogate motehr or a cloth to create an attachment
consisted of 8 rhesus monkeys-separated from the mother
group 1 â 4 monkeys in isolated cages where a cloth surrogate mother provided food and a wire surrogate didnt
group 2 â 4 monkeys isolated in cages where a wire surrogate mother provided food and a cloth surrogate didnât
IV-food/comfort given by surrogate
DV-amount of contact time spent with surrogate
Results: he discovered that monkeys grew up healthy but werenât able to get along with other monkeys. When he placed the monkeys in individual cages with a blanket, they became attached to the blanket. Attachment formation requires contact comfort. Infant monkeys raised by cloth surrogate mothers didnât develop properly and when fully grown, rarely socialised with other monkeys. Comfort trumps feeding in forming attachments
Bowlby (1969, 1988):
Primarily interested in teh development of attachment in children. Believed that attachment occurs in the first few years of life
development of attachment is biological and genetically inherited
monotropy (a close bond with usually the mother) is vital for child development
fundamentally different from attachment with other caregivers (unique-first to develop and remains strongest)-(two way street-child and mother influence on another)
Critical period -first 12 months of life is vital for monotropy to develop
How the theory works
attachment bonds: children are biologically programmed to form attachments with caregivers for survival. This provides a sense of security and comfort, mainly in times of distress
critical period: there is a critical period (2.5 in 1969(later extended to 5 in 1988) years), where attachments must form. If they donât it could lead to long term cognitive, social and emotional difficulties)
internal working models: through interactions with caregivers, children develop internal working models (the mental representation of themselves, caregivers and relationships, which influence future social interactions)
attachment behaviours: bowlby identified behaviours such as crying, clinging, and following as instinctive actions that help maintain proximity to the caregiver. These behaviours are activated when the child feels threatened/insecure
secure base: the caregiver acts as a secure base from which the child can explore the world. This secure attachment allows the child to develop confidence and independence
1969 v 1988
(critical v sensitive period): emphasised a critical period for attachment formation, of 2.5 years to avoid long term impacts. This was later extended to a sensitive period up to 5 years, acknowledging that attachment can still develop beyond the initial timeframe
(internal working models): introduced the concept, yet further elaborated how the models influence not just childhood but also adult relationships including romantic bonds
(secure base concept): initially described as the caregiver providing a safe haven for the child, which was later expanded to highlight the caregiverâs role in providing mental and emotional stability throughout life
(broader implications): the focus was primarily on the mother and their impact on child development, but was expanded to the role of fathers and discussed the implications of attachment theory for mental health
Internal working model: attachment leads to developing the internal working model (the working model changes according to experiences in relationships, and is established in the first few years of life, flexible in children but because resistant to change through age)
3 parts-model of others being trustworthy, self as valuable, self as effective at interacting with others
Maternal deprivation hypothesis
maternal deprivation is the consequences an indivdiual experiences when they are separated from their care giver-usually mother
consequences include: intellectual development delay, or weirdly low IQ, emotional developmental delay, inability to have empathy (bowlby calls this affectionless psychopathy), difficulties forming social and intimate relaitonships
contributions and criticisms:
highlighted the importance that early bonds significantly impact emotional and social development
introduced the idea that early attachment experiences form metal frameworks for future relationships
work inspired other later researchers and studies into child development
overemphasis on the mother
delinquency could be due to family conflict, not maternal deprivaiton
doesnât distinguish between loss of attachment and total deprivation
Mary answorth (1978) + link to bowlbyâs thoery:
created a method known as the strange situation, involving a series of episodes where the infant interacts with their mother and a stranger (introduction, acclimatisation, first separation, first reunion, second separation, second reunion)
there are 4 characteristics of attachment (proximity maintenance, safe haven, secure base, separation distress)
method is used to study the differences in quality of attachment between children and caregiver
attachment is based on the Childs reaction and is placed into 3 different categories
these attachment styles are kept thorughout life as believed by researchers
exposed to 7 eipisodes in the same order each lasting around 3 minutes
ainsworth developed 3 attachment styles
Type a-insecure avoidant (insecurity showed by ignoring mothers, failing to look at her or not being close)
type b-secure attachment (used mothers as a secure base from which to explore
type c-insecure resistant-insecurity indicated by resisting mother, clinging on to her or by kicking and pushing her away
Type a (approx 20%-insecure avoidant)
Infant behaviour: The infant doesnât seek proximity with the mother. Is happy to explore but doesnât use the mother as a secure base. Shows very little anxiety. No sign to distress when mother leaves. Infant shows little interest in mother when she returns and may avoid eye contact.
Motherâs behaviour: The mum ignores the infant, causing the child to believe that communication of needs doesnât have an influence to the mother
Type b (approx 70%-secure attachment)
Infant behaviour: The infant is happy to seek proximity to the mother, is happy to explore and uses the mother as a secure base. The child has moderate stranger anxiety and separation distress, finding happiness and seeking comfort from the mother
Motherâs behaviour: mother is sensitive to the infants needs
Type c (approx 10%-insecure resistant)
Infant behaviour: infant seeks great proximity to the mother, explores very little and doesnât use the mother as a secure base. Has high levels of stranger and separation anxiety, and may approach mother but resists comfort.
Motherâs behaviour: Mother is inconsistent with primary care, sometimes ignores needs sometimes meets them
simplified:
Typa a-ignores parent upon return, little emotion, similar response to stranger
type b-seeks contact after separation, easily comforted, returns to exploration
type c-seeks yet resists contact, difficult to soothe, shows anger and distress
contributions:
provided the first empirical evidence for Bowlbyâs attachment theory
Criticisms:
infants were sometimes taken into unfamiliar environments and left for a few minutes, not counting for real life examples. This was only valid in western countries
Link to bowlbyâs theory:
primary care givern rejects the child and isnât sensitive to their needs (type a)-child develops negative internal working models of self as they believe themselves to be unworthy
primary care giver is sensitive to the needs of the child(type b)-child develops a positive internal working model of the self, others and relation between self and others
Primary caregiver is inconsistent with primary care (type c)-child develops a negative internal working model of the self and tries to receive attention by exaggerating their emotional responses
enriched v deprived environments:
enriched-rich in sensory experiences, provides learning environments and needs supportive caregiving from adults
deprived-resource deprivation, lack of exposure to learning environment, can reduce cognitive skills and lead to poor social skills
extreme deprivation-includes neglect/abuse
social deprivation-limited access to learning materials and environments
enriched leads to larger brain volume, better cognitive functions, increased synaptic connections, wherever deprived environments lead to smaller brain size, impaired cognitive function, stunted neural development and reduced synaptic density
critical (essential and fixed window) v sensitive period (optimal but not exclusive)
e.g., if something isnât learnt in childhood it may never develop
sensitive-learning a second language is easiest during early childhood but still possible later (motor skill development)
enriched environments provide stimulation, interaction and learning opportunities during sensitive periods
deprived environments lack essential stimuli such as language, social contact, or care. it can lead to delays or permanent deficits especially if occurring during critical periods
piaget (1936):
schema-mental frameworks or building blocks that organise past experiences and provide an understanding of future experiences
many theories are based off of his theories
stages of cognitive development:
sensorimotor
preoporational
concrete operational
formal operational
cognitive processes
schema
assimilation
accommodation
equilibration
schema is a mental idea about what something is and how to deal with it
process of schema formation
assimilation-the process whereby new experiences are combined with pre-existing schemas. It is to add or combine new knowledge to existing knowledge
accomodation-when new experiences can cause schema to change or modify. Existing schemes are altered or new ones are formed as a person learns new information. You can change schema to accommodate the new information
equilibration (the balance between assimilation and accomodation): equilibrium-occurs when existing schemas can successfully incorporate new information. Disequilibrium-arises when existing schemas cannot accommodate new information
stages of development continued (from infancy to adolescence)
sensory motor stage (0-2 years): understanding is developed through sensory and motor interactions including mouthing, looking, listening, grasping or pulling. Infants begin to gain an understanding of object permanence, understanding that an object still exists even if itâs unable to be touched or seen
pre-operational stage (2-7 years): children continue to develop and use symbols, images and language to represent their world. They often engage in pretend play. Symbolic thinking (develop symbols to represent objects/events), centration (children can only focus on one thing at a time), animism (inanimate objects are alive), egocentrism (inability to differentiate between self and others, canât view the world from someone elseâs POV)
concrete operational (7-11 years): children can perform basic mental problems and think logically involve physical objects. Start to use concepts like time, space and number. Conservation (mass and volume remain unchanged when the form of an object is altered), seriation (grouping objects by multiple characteristics, arrange a collection of items into a logical series)
formal operational (11 + years): children are able to think logically and methodically about physical and abstract problems. Children possess the ability to use abstract logical thinking for problem solving. Abstract thinking is formed
Strengths and limitations about piagetâs stages of development
strengths
support in all aspects of culture and location
fundamental aspects are valid
applied to educated
generated critical research
limitations
stages occur earlier than expected
overestimated peoples formal operational abilities
more of a description not an explanation
neglects cognitive factors that account for individual differences
underestimates the effect of social factors
unscientific method
Piagetian tasks: (*STUDY THESE)
Task | Method | Stage | Findings |
Invisible Displacement | A toy is placed under one of several covers while the child is watching. Then, while the child is not looking, the toy is moved to another location without being directly visible to the child. The child is then asked to find the toy. | Sensorimotor Stage (Birth â 2 years) | Findings: Infants who have not yet developed object permanence (typically younger than 18 months) will struggle to find the toy when it is moved without direct observation. |
Three Mountain Task | A child is shown a model of three mountains of different sizes and features. A doll is placed at different viewpoints around the model. The child is asked to describe what the doll can see. | Preoperational Stage (2 â 7 years) | Younger children tend to describe the scene only from their own perspective, showing egocentrismâthe inability to understand viewpoints different from their own. Older children (around 7+) start to correctly identify the dollâs perspective. |
Conservation Task | Piaget used various conservation tasks to assess whether children understand that properties of objects (such as volume, number, mass) remain the same despite changes in their form or arrangement. For example: | Concrete Operational Stage (7 â 11 years) | Children in the preoperational stage struggle with conservation and believe that a taller or wider object means more quantity. In the concrete operational stage, children develop logical thinking and understand conservation. |
Pendulum Problem | A child is given a pendulum (a string with a weight attached) and asked to determine what affects the speed of its swing. They are given different string lengths, weights, and heights from which the pendulum can be dropped. | Formal Operational Stage (12+ years) | Younger children in the concrete operational stage tend to test variables randomly or change multiple factors at once. In contrast, adolescents in the formal operational stage use systematic testingâchanging one variable at a time while keeping others constantâto determine the effect of each factor on the pendulumâs swing. |
case study:
genie genie the wild child
she had been isolatted, neglected and aused by her father since infancy
confined to a small rom and often restrained to a chair or crib and had minimal exposure to language or social interaction
psychological significance of thed case
genies case became a unique opportunity to study critical periods in development, particularly for language acquisition
Lifespan domains of development
Harlow (1958):
Through rhesus Monekys
investigate the provision of food either by a surrogate motehr or a cloth to create an attachment
consisted of 8 rhesus monkeys-separated from the mother
group 1 â 4 monkeys in isolated cages where a cloth surrogate mother provided food and a wire surrogate didnt
group 2 â 4 monkeys isolated in cages where a wire surrogate mother provided food and a cloth surrogate didnât
IV-food/comfort given by surrogate
DV-amount of contact time spent with surrogate
Results: he discovered that monkeys grew up healthy but werenât able to get along with other monkeys. When he placed the monkeys in individual cages with a blanket, they became attached to the blanket. Attachment formation requires contact comfort. Infant monkeys raised by cloth surrogate mothers didnât develop properly and when fully grown, rarely socialised with other monkeys. Comfort trumps feeding in forming attachments
Bowlby (1969, 1988):
Primarily interested in teh development of attachment in children. Believed that attachment occurs in the first few years of life
development of attachment is biological and genetically inherited
monotropy (a close bond with usually the mother) is vital for child development
fundamentally different from attachment with other caregivers (unique-first to develop and remains strongest)-(two way street-child and mother influence on another)
Critical period -first 12 months of life is vital for monotropy to develop
How the theory works
attachment bonds: children are biologically programmed to form attachments with caregivers for survival. This provides a sense of security and comfort, mainly in times of distress
critical period: there is a critical period (2.5 in 1969(later extended to 5 in 1988) years), where attachments must form. If they donât it could lead to long term cognitive, social and emotional difficulties)
internal working models: through interactions with caregivers, children develop internal working models (the mental representation of themselves, caregivers and relationships, which influence future social interactions)
attachment behaviours: bowlby identified behaviours such as crying, clinging, and following as instinctive actions that help maintain proximity to the caregiver. These behaviours are activated when the child feels threatened/insecure
secure base: the caregiver acts as a secure base from which the child can explore the world. This secure attachment allows the child to develop confidence and independence
1969 v 1988
(critical v sensitive period): emphasised a critical period for attachment formation, of 2.5 years to avoid long term impacts. This was later extended to a sensitive period up to 5 years, acknowledging that attachment can still develop beyond the initial timeframe
(internal working models): introduced the concept, yet further elaborated how the models influence not just childhood but also adult relationships including romantic bonds
(secure base concept): initially described as the caregiver providing a safe haven for the child, which was later expanded to highlight the caregiverâs role in providing mental and emotional stability throughout life
(broader implications): the focus was primarily on the mother and their impact on child development, but was expanded to the role of fathers and discussed the implications of attachment theory for mental health
Internal working model: attachment leads to developing the internal working model (the working model changes according to experiences in relationships, and is established in the first few years of life, flexible in children but because resistant to change through age)
3 parts-model of others being trustworthy, self as valuable, self as effective at interacting with others
Maternal deprivation hypothesis
maternal deprivation is the consequences an indivdiual experiences when they are separated from their care giver-usually mother
consequences include: intellectual development delay, or weirdly low IQ, emotional developmental delay, inability to have empathy (bowlby calls this affectionless psychopathy), difficulties forming social and intimate relaitonships
contributions and criticisms:
highlighted the importance that early bonds significantly impact emotional and social development
introduced the idea that early attachment experiences form metal frameworks for future relationships
work inspired other later researchers and studies into child development
overemphasis on the mother
delinquency could be due to family conflict, not maternal deprivaiton
doesnât distinguish between loss of attachment and total deprivation
Mary answorth (1978) + link to bowlbyâs thoery:
created a method known as the strange situation, involving a series of episodes where the infant interacts with their mother and a stranger (introduction, acclimatisation, first separation, first reunion, second separation, second reunion)
there are 4 characteristics of attachment (proximity maintenance, safe haven, secure base, separation distress)
method is used to study the differences in quality of attachment between children and caregiver
attachment is based on the Childs reaction and is placed into 3 different categories
these attachment styles are kept thorughout life as believed by researchers
exposed to 7 eipisodes in the same order each lasting around 3 minutes
ainsworth developed 3 attachment styles
Type a-insecure avoidant (insecurity showed by ignoring mothers, failing to look at her or not being close)
type b-secure attachment (used mothers as a secure base from which to explore
type c-insecure resistant-insecurity indicated by resisting mother, clinging on to her or by kicking and pushing her away
Type a (approx 20%-insecure avoidant)
Infant behaviour: The infant doesnât seek proximity with the mother. Is happy to explore but doesnât use the mother as a secure base. Shows very little anxiety. No sign to distress when mother leaves. Infant shows little interest in mother when she returns and may avoid eye contact.
Motherâs behaviour: The mum ignores the infant, causing the child to believe that communication of needs doesnât have an influence to the mother
Type b (approx 70%-secure attachment)
Infant behaviour: The infant is happy to seek proximity to the mother, is happy to explore and uses the mother as a secure base. The child has moderate stranger anxiety and separation distress, finding happiness and seeking comfort from the mother
Motherâs behaviour: mother is sensitive to the infants needs
Type c (approx 10%-insecure resistant)
Infant behaviour: infant seeks great proximity to the mother, explores very little and doesnât use the mother as a secure base. Has high levels of stranger and separation anxiety, and may approach mother but resists comfort.
Motherâs behaviour: Mother is inconsistent with primary care, sometimes ignores needs sometimes meets them
simplified:
Typa a-ignores parent upon return, little emotion, similar response to stranger
type b-seeks contact after separation, easily comforted, returns to exploration
type c-seeks yet resists contact, difficult to soothe, shows anger and distress
contributions:
provided the first empirical evidence for Bowlbyâs attachment theory
Criticisms:
infants were sometimes taken into unfamiliar environments and left for a few minutes, not counting for real life examples. This was only valid in western countries
Link to bowlbyâs theory:
primary care givern rejects the child and isnât sensitive to their needs (type a)-child develops negative internal working models of self as they believe themselves to be unworthy
primary care giver is sensitive to the needs of the child(type b)-child develops a positive internal working model of the self, others and relation between self and others
Primary caregiver is inconsistent with primary care (type c)-child develops a negative internal working model of the self and tries to receive attention by exaggerating their emotional responses
enriched v deprived environments:
enriched-rich in sensory experiences, provides learning environments and needs supportive caregiving from adults
deprived-resource deprivation, lack of exposure to learning environment, can reduce cognitive skills and lead to poor social skills
extreme deprivation-includes neglect/abuse
social deprivation-limited access to learning materials and environments
enriched leads to larger brain volume, better cognitive functions, increased synaptic connections, wherever deprived environments lead to smaller brain size, impaired cognitive function, stunted neural development and reduced synaptic density
critical (essential and fixed window) v sensitive period (optimal but not exclusive)
e.g., if something isnât learnt in childhood it may never develop
sensitive-learning a second language is easiest during early childhood but still possible later (motor skill development)
enriched environments provide stimulation, interaction and learning opportunities during sensitive periods
deprived environments lack essential stimuli such as language, social contact, or care. it can lead to delays or permanent deficits especially if occurring during critical periods
piaget (1936):
schema-mental frameworks or building blocks that organise past experiences and provide an understanding of future experiences
many theories are based off of his theories
stages of cognitive development:
sensorimotor
preoporational
concrete operational
formal operational
cognitive processes
schema
assimilation
accommodation
equilibration
schema is a mental idea about what something is and how to deal with it
process of schema formation
assimilation-the process whereby new experiences are combined with pre-existing schemas. It is to add or combine new knowledge to existing knowledge
accomodation-when new experiences can cause schema to change or modify. Existing schemes are altered or new ones are formed as a person learns new information. You can change schema to accommodate the new information
equilibration (the balance between assimilation and accomodation): equilibrium-occurs when existing schemas can successfully incorporate new information. Disequilibrium-arises when existing schemas cannot accommodate new information
stages of development continued (from infancy to adolescence)
sensory motor stage (0-2 years): understanding is developed through sensory and motor interactions including mouthing, looking, listening, grasping or pulling. Infants begin to gain an understanding of object permanence, understanding that an object still exists even if itâs unable to be touched or seen
pre-operational stage (2-7 years): children continue to develop and use symbols, images and language to represent their world. They often engage in pretend play. Symbolic thinking (develop symbols to represent objects/events), centration (children can only focus on one thing at a time), animism (inanimate objects are alive), egocentrism (inability to differentiate between self and others, canât view the world from someone elseâs POV)
concrete operational (7-11 years): children can perform basic mental problems and think logically involve physical objects. Start to use concepts like time, space and number. Conservation (mass and volume remain unchanged when the form of an object is altered), seriation (grouping objects by multiple characteristics, arrange a collection of items into a logical series)
formal operational (11 + years): children are able to think logically and methodically about physical and abstract problems. Children possess the ability to use abstract logical thinking for problem solving. Abstract thinking is formed
Strengths and limitations about piagetâs stages of development
strengths
support in all aspects of culture and location
fundamental aspects are valid
applied to educated
generated critical research
limitations
stages occur earlier than expected
overestimated peoples formal operational abilities
more of a description not an explanation
neglects cognitive factors that account for individual differences
underestimates the effect of social factors
unscientific method
Piagetian tasks: (*STUDY THESE)
Task | Method | Stage | Findings |
Invisible Displacement | A toy is placed under one of several covers while the child is watching. Then, while the child is not looking, the toy is moved to another location without being directly visible to the child. The child is then asked to find the toy. | Sensorimotor Stage (Birth â 2 years) | Findings: Infants who have not yet developed object permanence (typically younger than 18 months) will struggle to find the toy when it is moved without direct observation. |
Three Mountain Task | A child is shown a model of three mountains of different sizes and features. A doll is placed at different viewpoints around the model. The child is asked to describe what the doll can see. | Preoperational Stage (2 â 7 years) | Younger children tend to describe the scene only from their own perspective, showing egocentrismâthe inability to understand viewpoints different from their own. Older children (around 7+) start to correctly identify the dollâs perspective. |
Conservation Task | Piaget used various conservation tasks to assess whether children understand that properties of objects (such as volume, number, mass) remain the same despite changes in their form or arrangement. For example: | Concrete Operational Stage (7 â 11 years) | Children in the preoperational stage struggle with conservation and believe that a taller or wider object means more quantity. In the concrete operational stage, children develop logical thinking and understand conservation. |
Pendulum Problem | A child is given a pendulum (a string with a weight attached) and asked to determine what affects the speed of its swing. They are given different string lengths, weights, and heights from which the pendulum can be dropped. | Formal Operational Stage (12+ years) | Younger children in the concrete operational stage tend to test variables randomly or change multiple factors at once. In contrast, adolescents in the formal operational stage use systematic testingâchanging one variable at a time while keeping others constantâto determine the effect of each factor on the pendulumâs swing. |
case study:
genie genie the wild child
she had been isolatted, neglected and aused by her father since infancy
confined to a small rom and often restrained to a chair or crib and had minimal exposure to language or social interaction
psychological significance of thed case
genies case became a unique opportunity to study critical periods in development, particularly for language acquisition