Quizlwt Educ 245- made from study guide

• Aggression

  • Physical Aggression: Deliberate actions meant to physically harm or injure another person, common in young children as they develop social skills.

  • Relational Aggression: Nonphysical actions such as gossiping or exclusion intended to damage someone's social relationships or psychological well-being.

• Attachment Theory

  • Proposed by John Bowlby, it highlights the enduring impact of early bonds with caregivers on emotional development and social relationships.

  • Phases: Pre-attachment (indiscriminate social responsiveness), attachment-in-the-making (recognition of familiar people), clear-cut attachment (separation protest and intentional communication), and goal-corrected partnership (mutual understanding of intentions and goals).

  • Patterns include secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized attachments.

• Attribution Theory

  • Developed by Fritz Heider and expanded by Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner, this theory explains how people attribute causes to behaviors or events:

    • Internal attribution: Blaming personal traits (e.g., laziness).

    • External attribution: Attributing to external factors (e.g., bad luck).

• Socialized Delinquency

  • Refers to adolescents who generally adhere to societal norms but occasionally engage in deviant acts due to peer influences.

• Unsocialized Delinquency

  • Pertains to adolescents raised with harsh or indifferent parenting, often leading to rule-breaking behavior without regard for societal norms.

• Differential Emotions Theory

  • Posits that emotional expressions reflect experiences and help regulate emotions. Suggests core emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise) are the foundation for complex feelings like guilt or shame.

• Display Rules

  • Culturally specific norms that dictate how, when, and to what extent emotions should be expressed. For example, minimizing sadness in public or exaggerating joy in social gatherings.

• Emotional Intelligence (EI)

  • Introduced by Daniel Goleman, it involves recognizing, understanding, and managing one’s emotions while interpreting and responding effectively to others' emotions.

    • Components: Self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and social skills.

• Identity Formation

  • Explored by Erik Erikson in the Identity vs. Identity Confusion stage, it involves determining a distinct sense of self, often influenced by social relationships and personal experiences during adolescence.

• Imaginary Audience

  • A phenomenon where adolescents believe others are constantly observing and judging them, contributing to heightened self-consciousness.

• Individualistic and Collectivistic Orientations

  • Individualistic: Found in Western societies, emphasizing personal independence and uniqueness.

  • Collectivistic: Common in Eastern societies, promoting interdependence and community harmony.

• Parenting Styles

  • Authoritarian: Strict and controlling, often leading to low self-esteem in children.

  • Permissive: Lenient, resulting in children with less self-discipline.

  • Authoritative: Balanced approach encouraging independence with firm guidance, often producing secure and socially competent children.

  • Uninvolved: Neglectful parenting that can lead to emotional and social issues.

• Personal Fables

  • Adolescents’ belief that their experiences are unique and incomparable, often making them feel invincible (e.g., “It won’t happen to me”).

• Personality (Big Five)

  • Traits include:

    • Extraversion: Outgoing and energetic behavior.

    • Agreeableness: Compassionate and cooperative.

    • Conscientiousness: Organized and dependable.

    • Neuroticism: Tendency to experience negative emotions.

    • Openness: Curiosity and creativity.

• Characteristics of Play

  • Parallel Play: Playing alongside others without interaction.

  • Onlooker Play: Watching others play without participation.

  • Associative Play: Sharing or borrowing toys without coordinated activities.

  • Cooperative Play: Engaging in shared activities and games.

• Post-Formal Thought

  • A stage of cognitive development in adulthood characterized by flexible, realistic, and dialectical thinking, moving beyond binary solutions to nuanced perspectives.

• Characteristics of Puberty

  • Includes primary sexual characteristics (development of reproductive organs) and secondary characteristics(visible changes like body hair).

  • Early and late maturation impacts self-esteem and social dynamics differently in boys and girls.

• Resiliency/Grit

  • The ability to recover from adversity and sustain long-term efforts, integrating emotional self-regulation, problem-solving, and perseverance.

• Self-Handicapping

  • A strategy where individuals create obstacles to their success to provide excuses for potential failures (e.g., procrastination or overcommitting).

• Social Exchange Theory

  • A perspective where interpersonal relationships are evaluated based on perceived rewards and costs, aiming to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

• Vicarious Punishment

  • Learning to avoid behaviors by observing others being punished, emphasizing the impact of observation on behavior (as per Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory).

• 1. How does Marcia's framework of identity attachment add to the theories of Erikson?

  Answer:
  Marcia expanded on Erik Erikson's concept of identity formation in adolescence (Identity vs. Identity Confusion) by categorizing it into four identity statuses based on commitment and exploration:

  1. Identity Achievement: Individuals who have explored various options and committed to specific ones.

  2. Identity Moratorium: Individuals actively exploring but not yet committed.

  3. Identity Foreclosure: Individuals who commit without exploration, often adopting roles imposed by others.

  4. Identity Diffusion: Individuals with neither exploration nor commitment, often leading to confusion.
     Marcia’s framework provided a more detailed operationalization of Erikson’s theory by offering measurable statuses and focusing on the process of exploration and commitment.

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  2. What are distinctions to draw between temperament and personality?

  Answer:

  • Temperament refers to biologically rooted traits that influence behavior from infancy, such as reactivity and self-regulation.

  • Personality encompasses enduring characteristics that emerge from temperament but are shaped by environmental influences and experiences over time.
    For example, a child with a "difficult temperament" may grow up to develop personality traits like neuroticism if not provided with supportive interactions.

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  3. What are examples of vicarious reinforcers and punishment as discussed in Chapter 13?

  Answer:

  • Vicarious Reinforcer: Observing someone being rewarded for a behavior, which increases the likelihood of imitating that behavior (e.g., a student praised for answering a question encourages peers to participate).

  • Vicarious Punishment: Observing someone being punished for a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of imitating that behavior (e.g., seeing a peer scolded for speaking out of turn discourages others from doing the same).

  These concepts align with Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, highlighting the impact of observational learning.

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  4. What is largely unique about Helm’s theories of racial identity?

  Answer:
  Janet Helms’ theory focuses on White racial identity development, emphasizing how individuals progress through stages of understanding and dismantling internalized racism. Her framework is unique as it not only addresses the experiences of racial minorities but also examines how white individuals can move toward autonomy and actively challenge systemic racism through awareness and positive racial identity development.

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  5. What types of work in the area of development started to meaningfully create gender differences?

  Answer:
  Sandra Bem's Gender Schema Theory significantly advanced understanding by illustrating how societal norms shape individuals' understanding of gender roles. Additionally, Carol Gilligan’s critique of Kohlberg’s moral development theory addressed how traditional research overlooked the moral reasoning patterns of women, emphasizing care and relationships as key developmental aspects often neglected in male-dominated frameworks.

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  6. How did Gardner redefine aspects of intelligence, and what connections can be drawn to personality types?

  Answer:
  Howard Gardner proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, suggesting that intelligence is not a single factor but consists of varied domains like linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, and bodily-kinesthetic. These intelligences align with personality traits—for instance, high interpersonal intelligence correlates with agreeableness, while intrapersonal intelligence reflects self-awareness tied to conscientiousness and openness.

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  7. What is the connection between Dweck’s notion of mindsets and the various types of motivation?

  Answer:
  Carol Dweck’s Growth Mindset Theory posits that individuals who believe abilities can be developed (growth mindset) are more motivated to embrace challenges and learn from failures. This connects to intrinsic motivation, where effort is driven by personal satisfaction. Conversely, a fixed mindset aligns with extrinsic motivation, where behavior is influenced by external rewards or fear of failure.

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  8. How did Bowlby expand on the earlier work of ethologists?

  Answer:
  John Bowlby incorporated concepts from ethologists like Lorenz (imprinting in geese) to develop his Attachment Theory. He highlighted the evolutionary basis of attachment, emphasizing that proximity-seeking behaviors in infants enhance survival. Bowlby’s work also introduced psychological constructs like separation anxiety and stranger wariness.

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  9. How would you summarize a cycle of low self-esteem?

  Answer:
  Low self-esteem creates a negative feedback loop:

  1. Negative self-view leads to anxiety or reduced effort in tasks.

  2. Poor performance reinforces feelings of inadequacy.

  3. The individual’s belief in failure becomes self-fulfilling, perpetuating the cycle.
     Interventions, such as supportive parenting or positive reinforcement, can break this cycle.

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  10. What characteristics are found at the highest level of Kohlberg’s model of moral/ethical development? Why might the attainment of these stages be somewhat rare?

  Answer:
  At Kohlberg’s Postconventional Level, individuals act based on universal ethical principles and justice, transcending societal laws (e.g., civil disobedience for moral causes). Attainment is rare because it requires abstract reasoning, autonomy, and often conflicts with societal norms, which can deter individuals.

11. What is meant by the terms post-formal or neo-Piagetian thought?

Answer:
Post-formal thought refers to cognitive development beyond Piaget’s formal operational stage. It is characterized by:

• Flexibility: Recognizing multiple solutions to problems.

• Dialectical Thinking: Combining contradictory ideas to form a synthesis.

• Contextualization: Applying logic in real-world, interpersonal contexts.

Neo-Piagetian thought includes adaptations to Piaget's theory, integrating new research on information processing and individual differences, suggesting that some adults may never reach the formal operational stage in all domains.

12. What are some of the ways that characteristics of dating and courtship have changed in American society?

Answer:

• Colonial Era: Dating was non-existent; marriage was expected and often arranged.

• 19th Century: Courtship emerged with romantic love gaining importance.

• 1920s: Dating became a social activity, influenced by peer groups rather than family.

• 1960s-1980s: Increasing liberal views on sexuality and less emphasis on marriage as a prerequisite for intimacy.

Modern dating is heavily influenced by technology, with online platforms and apps altering social norms.

13. Why are Maslow’s theories referred to as a hierarchy or a taxonomy?

Answer:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a pyramid structure that organizes human needs into levels, each building on the satisfaction of the previous one:

1. Physiological: Basic survival needs (food, water).

2. Safety: Security and stability.

3. Belongingness and Love: Social relationships.

4. Esteem: Achievement and recognition.

5. Self-Actualization: Realizing one’s potential.

This hierarchical arrangement explains the sequential nature of fulfilling basic needs before pursuing higher-level growth.

14. Are there components of Galinsky’s theory of parenting that are largely culturally specific? Which ones?

Answer:
Galinsky’s stages (e.g., Parental Image, Nurturing, Authority, Independent Teenage, Departure) may vary culturally:

• Authority Stage: Western cultures often emphasize independence, whereas collectivist societies may stress obedience and interdependence.

• Departure Stage: In collectivist cultures, adult children may remain closely integrated with family, contrasting with the Western "empty nest" experience.

15. What are some of the various phases of retirement, according to Atchley?

Answer:
Atchley’s retirement phases include:

1. Preretirement: Preparing financially and mentally for retirement.

2. Honeymoon: Enjoying newfound freedom and pursuing hobbies.

3. Disenchantment: Realizing retirement may not meet expectations, leading to frustration.

4. Reorientation: Adjusting priorities and finding meaningful activities.

5. Stability: Establishing a fulfilling routine.

6. Termination: Health declines may reduce independence and active engagement.

16. How does terminal illness often represent the last of the stage theories for individuals to undergo?

Answer:
Terminal illness aligns with Elisabeth Kübler-Ross's Stages of Grief, marking a final developmental phase:

1. Denial: Refusing to accept the diagnosis.

2. Anger: Frustration at the situation or others.

3. Bargaining: Attempting to negotiate for more time.

4. Depression: Grieving impending loss.

5. Acceptance: Coming to terms with the reality of death.

These stages help individuals emotionally process their mortality, offering closure and peace.

17. Consider Chomsky’s theories within the context of the nature/nurture debate.

Answer:
Chomsky’s Universal Grammar theory supports the nature side, arguing that humans have an innate capacity for language, guided by the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in the brain. However, language development also requires exposure to environmental stimuli (nurture), demonstrating a complex interplay between innate mechanisms and learning from one’s surroundings.

18. What does the textbook (Chapter 12) refer to as self-handicapping?

Answer:
Self-handicapping is a strategy where individuals create obstacles or excuses to avoid taking responsibility for potential failure. Examples include procrastination, overcommitting, or claiming exhaustion before exams. This behavior protects self-esteem but undermines performance and learning.

19. Connect the concept of risk-taking and risk aversion to our topics of study.

Answer:
Risk-taking and risk aversion relate to:

• Adolescent Development: Adolescents often exhibit risk-taking due to heightened sensation-seeking and underdeveloped prefrontal cortex.

• Personality Traits: Traits like openness and extraversion may correlate with higher risk-taking, while conscientiousness aligns with risk aversion.

• Decision-Making: Erikson’s stages, such as Identity vs. Role Confusion, involve risks in exploring different identities.

20. What are some of the components of a theory of mind as discussed in Chapter 12?

Answer:
Theory of Mind refers to the ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and emotions distinct from one’s own. Components include:

1. Recognizing that others can have false beliefs.

2. Understanding emotions and predicting others’ reactions.

3. Differentiating between intentional and accidental actions.

This development typically emerges in early childhood and is foundational for empathy and social interaction.