Bioscience_2_Chapter_21_and_42_Part_1_JKele
Page 1: Overview
Chapter Title: Blood Typing, Immunology, and Viruses
Course: BIOL 122: Bioscience II
Instructor: Joseph Kele, Ed.Dc., M.S.
Semester: Spring 2025
Information adapted from Openstax Biology 2e
Page 2: Overview of Blood
Blood Volume: Approximately 5 liters circulate in the body.
Blood Composition: Makes up about 8% of total body weight.
Major Components:
Plasma: Liquid extracellular matrix.
Formed Elements: Cells and cell fragments in plasma, including:
Erythrocytes (RBCs)
Leukocytes (WBCs)
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
Page 3: Centrifuging Blood
Blood Centrifugation: Separates blood into three layers:
Plasma: 55% of total blood volume.
Buffy Coat: 1% of volume, contains WBCs and platelets.
Hematocrit: 44% of total blood volume, precipitate of RBCs.
Page 4: Functions of Blood (Part 1)
Exchanging Gases:
Oxygen (O2) transported from lungs to tissues by RBCs.
CO2 transported from tissues to lungs by RBCs and plasma.
Distributing Solutes:
Plasma transports various solutes including nutrients and hormones.
Important for regulating ion concentrations in the body.
Page 5: Functions of Blood (Part 2)
Immune Functions:
WBCs and immune proteins travel via blood to fight infections.
Body Temperature Regulation:
Blood carries heat from metabolizing tissues to maintain temperature.
Blood Clotting:
Thrombocytes form clots when blood vessels are damaged.
Acid-Base Homeostasis:
pH maintained between 7.35 and 7.45.
Stabilizing Blood Pressure:
Blood volume in circulation influences blood pressure.
Page 6: Plasma Composition
Plasma Overview:
Pale-yellow liquid, primarily composed of water (90%).
Changes in water content impact blood viscosity and flow.
Page 7: Plasma Components
Plasma Proteins:
Make up 9% of plasma, mainly produced by the liver.
Form colloids due to large size preventing full dissolution in water.
Types of Plasma Proteins:
Albumin
Immune Proteins (Antibodies)
Transport Proteins
Clotting Proteins
Small molecules (1%): Glucose, nitrogenous wastes, O2, CO2.
Page 8: Albumin
Albumin Function:
Large protein produced by the liver.
Responsible for blood's colloid osmotic pressure (COP).
COP draws water into the blood via osmosis.
Page 9: Immune Proteins
Immune Proteins Overview:
Also known as antibodies, produced by leukocytes (WBCs).
Types of leukocytes producing antibodies:
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
Basophils
Eosinophils
Neutrophils
Page 10: Transport Proteins
Transport Proteins Overview:
Hydrophilic proteins that associate with water molecules.
Examples include alpha- and beta-globulins, lipoproteins.
Function:
Aid in transporting lipid-based (hydrophobic) molecules in blood.
Page 11: Clotting Proteins
Clotting Proteins Overview:
Found in blood clots with thrombocytes.
Vital in stopping bleeding from damaged vessels.
Page 12: Blood Typing and Matching
Blood Transfusion:
Involves transferring blood from a donor to a recipient.
Antigens on Erythrocytes:
Responsible for different blood groups, derived from genetically determined CHO chains.
Key Antigen Groups:
ABO Blood Group
Rh Blood Group
Page 13: The ABO Blood Group
Antigens:
A-Antigen
B-Antigen
Blood Types:
Type A: Only A-Antigen present.
Type B: Only B-Antigen present.
Type AB: Both A and B Antigens present.
Type O: Neither antigen present.
Page 14: The Rh Blood Group
Rh Antigen (D-Antigen):
Classification of blood based on the presence or absence of this antigen.
Rh Positive: Has Rh antigen (Rh+).
Rh Negative: Lacks Rh antigen (Rh-).
Page 15: Blood Types Examples
Type O+:
Has Rh antigen, lacks A/B antigens.
Most common type (38% U.S. population).
Type AB-:
Lacks Rh antigen, has A and B antigens.
Least common type (1% U.S. population).
Page 16: Antibodies
Antibodies Overview:
Produced by B-lymphocytes, bind to foreign antigens.
Function in agglutination of target antigens.
Agglutination can destroy RBCs (hemolysis).
Page 17: Determining Blood Type
Testing Method:
A blood sample is treated with three antibodies:
Anti-A: Binds to A-antigens.
Anti-B: Binds to B-antigens.
Anti-Rh: Binds to Rh-antigens.
Page 18: Summary of Blood Types
Blood Type versus Antibodies in Plasma:
Group A: Antibody Anti-B.
Group B: Antibody Anti-A.
Group AB: No antibodies.
Group O: Antibodies Anti-A and Anti-B.
Page 19: Blood Type Compatibility
Compatibility Chart showing which blood types can receive which type without immune reaction.
Perfect matches and incompatible types are indicated to show potential reactions.
Page 20: "Rh Factor" in Transfusions
Importance of Rh Factor in determining transfusion compatibility, especially for certain combinations of donor and recipient blood types.
Page 21: Leukocytes and Immune Function
Leukocytes (WBCs): Larger than RBCs with prominent nuclei.
Do not function in blood; use blood as transport to reach tissues.
Exit via endothelial cells of blood vessels after adhering to capillary walls.
Page 22: Varieties of Leukocytes
Leukocytes Varieties:
Granulocytes: Cytoplasmic granules present.
Agranulocytes: Lack visible granules.
Page 23: Granulocytes Overview
Granulocyte Structure: Single nucleus with lobes connected by bands.
Granulocyte Types:
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Page 24: Neutrophils
Type: Most common leukocyte (60-70% of WBCs).
Characteristics: Stains lilac color; polymorphonuclear (3-6 lobes).
Function: Phagocytize bacteria; attracted via chemotaxis to sites of injury.
Page 25: Neutrophil Function
Chemotaxis: Attracted to damaged cells by chemical signals.
Function Upon Arrival:
Kill bacteria, enhance inflammation, attract more WBCs.
Page 26: Eosinophils
Characteristics: Red-staining from eosin dye; bilobed nuclei.
Function: Respond to parasitic infections and allergic reactions; can mediate inflammation.
Page 27: Basophils
Characteristics: Rarest leukocyte (<1%); dark purple-staining granules obscure nuclei.
Function: Release chemicals that mediate inflammation.
Page 28: Agranulocytes Overview
Agranulocytes: Lack visible granules, have lysosomes; types include lymphocytes and monocytes.
Page 29: Lymphocytes
Characteristics: Second most numerous leukocyte (20-25% of WBCs); large, spherical nuclei.
Function: Activated by antigens; types are B-Lymphocytes (B-Cells) and T-Lymphocytes (T-Cells).
Page 30: B-Cells vs T-Cells
B-Cells: Produce antibodies targeting specific antigens.
T-Cells: Do not produce antibodies; activate other immune system components when they bind to pathogens.
Page 31: Monocytes
Characteristics: Largest leukocyte (3-8% of WBCs); U-shaped nuclei.
Function: Mature into macrophages; phagocytize debris and activate immune responses via antigen presentation.
Page 32: Immune and Lymphatic Systems
Function: Protects body from pathogens and cellular injury through coordinated processes.
Page 33: Introduction to Lymphatic System
Components:
Lymphatic Vessels
Lymphatic Tissue and Organs (e.g., tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus).
Page 34: Functions of the Lymphatic System
Function 1: Regulation of interstitial fluid volume; returns excess fluid to circulation.
Function 2: Absorption of dietary fats; fats absorbed into lymphatic vessels travel to blood.
Function 3: Immune functions; filters pathogens through lymphoid organs.
Page 35: Lymphatic Vessels
Types: Lymphatic collecting vessels merge into lymph trunks that transport lymph back to the blood.
Major Trunks: Includes lumbar, intestinal, jugular, bronchomediastinal, and subclavian trunks.
Page 36: Lymphatic Drainage
Cisterna Chyli: Drainage site for intestinal and lumbar trunks.
Ducts:
Thoracic Duct: drains left side and lower body into junction of left internal jugular and left subclavian veins.
Right Lymphatic Duct: drains upper right side into right internal jugular and right subclavian veins.
Page 37: Lymphatic Valves
Valves: Prevent backward lymph flow; assist in transport towards the heart.
Mechanism: Muscle contractions massage lymph through vessels.
Page 38: Lymphatic Capillaries
Function: Form networks around blood capillaries; specialized lymphatic capillaries (lacteals) collect fats in the small intestine.
Page 39: Lymphatic vs. Blood Capillaries
Differences:
Lymphatic capillaries are blind-ended (one-way); blood capillaries are two-way.
Walls: lymphatic endothelial cells flap open for fluid entry; blood endothelial cells tightly joined.
Page 40: Endothelial Cells of Lymphatic Capillaries
Fluid Dynamics: Increased interstitial fluid pressure opens lymphatic endothelial cells, allowing large fluid volume entry; closes upon decreased pressure, controlling interstitial fluid levels.
Page 41: Extreme Permeability
Permeability: Lymphatic capillaries allow easier entry of pathogens; can spread throughout the lymphatic system.
Pathogen Control: Clusters of lymph nodes trap and limit pathogen spread.
Page 42: Lymphoid Tissues and Organs
Tissue Type: Reticular connective tissue traps pathogens through reticular fibers.
Page 43: Cells of Lymphatic Tissues
Main Cells: Include macrophages, B-lymphocytes (B-Cells), T-lymphocytes (T-Cells), dendritic cells, and reticular cells.
Page 44: Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)
Characteristics: Clusters of lymphoid tissue protecting mucous membranes in GI tract, respiratory passages, and genitourinary tract; enriches B and T cell presence.
Page 45: Specialized MALT
Spherical Clusters: Contain germinal centers with dividing B-Cells, specialized dendritic cells, and macrophages; located in tonsils, Peyer’s patches, and appendix.
Page 46: Tonsils
Types of Tonsils:
Pharyngeal/Adenoid: in posterior nasal cavity.
Palatine: in oral cavity.
Lingual: at base of tongue.
Function: Trap bacteria and debris; susceptible to inflammation (tonsillitis).
Page 47: Appendix
Function: Bacterial defense in the large intestine; blockage may lead to appendicitis causing internal bleeding if untreated.
Page 48: Lymph Nodes
Structure: Small, bean-shaped clusters found along lymphatic vessels.
Locations: In designated areas – axillary, cervical, inguinal, mesenteric nodes.
Page 49: Anatomy of a Lymph Node
Structure: External connective tissue capsule surrounding reticular fibers; two main regions – outer cortex and inner medulla, with T-Cells and B-Cells.
Page 50: Filtering Lymph Process
Steps:
Lymph enters through afferent vessels.
Travels through reticular network trapping pathogens.
Cleansed lymph exits through efferent vessels; lymph nodes can swell due to high pathogen capture.
Page 51: Types of Immunity
Innate/Nonspecific Immunity: Responds to all pathogens in the same way; quick response, dominant in early stages of infection.
Adaptive/Specific Immunity: Individualized response to unique antigens through cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity.
Page 52: Comparing Immunity Types
Adaptive Immunity Characteristics: Slower to respond, requires prior exposure for effectiveness, has immunological memory versus the rapid response of innate immunity.
Page 53: Surface Barriers
Skin and Mucosae: Primary barriers against pathogen entry; skin is sturdy due to keratin, and mucous membranes secrete protective substances.
Page 54: Immune Cells Overview
Main Immune Cells: Different leukocytes including both agranulocytes and granulocytes; phagocytes actively remove pathogens through ingestion.
Page 55: NK and Dendritic Cells
Cell Types:
NK Cells: Act in innate immunity, target cancerous/virus-infected cells.
Dendritic Cells: Activate T-Cells by presenting antigens.
Page 56: Immune System Proteins
Types:
Antibodies (from B-Cells),
Complement proteins (innate function),
Cytokines (regulators for immune activity).
Page 57: Components of Innate Immunity
Definition: Comprises antimicrobial molecules, psychosocial cells like neutrophils, macrophages, and NK cells; triggers immediate responses.
Page 58: Phagocytes
Types:
Macrophages: Derived from monocytes; active phagocytic cells that respond to injury.
Neutrophils: Effective against bacteria; release cytotoxic substances when faced with large pathogens.
Page 59: Eosinophils
Function: Respond to parasitic infections and help mediate inflammation through releasing granular contents.
Page 60: Non-Phagocytic Cells
NK Cells: Recognize abnormal cells; cytotoxic activities lead to cell destruction.
Dendritic Cells: Present antigens to T-Cells for activation.
Page 61: Basophils
Function: Involved in inflammatory responses; located in blood; release mediators for inflammation.
Page 62: The Complement System
Composition: 20+ plasma proteins produced mostly by the liver; starts inactive and requires activation.
Page 63: Activation Pathways
Classical Pathway: Begins with antibody binding to antigen.
Alternative Pathway: Begins with C3's cleavage to C3b; both converge to activate C5.
Page 64: Effects of Activated Complement Proteins
Cell Lysis: C5b creates membrane attack complex (MAC) for lysis.
Inflammation: Enhances inflammatory response; attracts and activates leukocytes.
Neutralization of Viruses: Blocks virus infection into host cells.
Enhanced Phagocytosis: Opsonization makes phagocytes bind better to pathogens.
Clearing Immune Complexes: Removes clusters of antigens bound to antibodies from circulation.
Page 65: Cytokines Overview
Role: Proteins secreted by immune cells to enhance responses; include TNF, Interferons, and Interleukins.
Page 66: Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)
Source: Secreted by activated macrophages.
Effects: Promotes fever, attracts phagocytes, and increases their activity.
Severe Response: High levels during infections can lead to septic shock.
Page 67: Interferons (INF)
Source: Produced by macrophages and other immune cells; inhibit viral replication and activate immune components.
Page 68: Interleukins
Function: Stimulate neutrophil production, activate T cells, and enhance immune responses.
Page 69: Inflammatory Response
Stages: Triggered by cellular injury, leading to mediators promoting inflammation; involves recruitment of phagocytes.
Page 70: Effects of Inflammatory Mediators
Vasodilation: Increased blood flow makes tissue red/hot.
Increased Permeability: Leads to fluid leakage, causing swelling.
Pain: Serves as a warning and helps prevent further injury.
Chemotaxis: Recruits leukocytes to the injury site.
Page 71: Phagocyte Response Stages
Macrophage Activation: Immediate response to clean up pathogens.
Neutrophil Migration: Occurs slightly later; clears bacteria and cellular debris.
Monocyte Migration: Monocytes become macrophages, taking longer.
Page 72: Leukocytosis Following Injury
Bone Marrow Response: Increased production of leukocytes; leads to elevated WBC counts in response to inflammation.
Page 73: Final Response
Outcomes: Accumulation of dead cells and tissue forms pus; signals prolonged inflammatory response; pus may condense when healing is completed.