Bioscience_2_Chapter_21_and_42_Part_1_JKele

Page 1: Overview

• Chapter Title: Blood Typing, Immunology, and Viruses

• Course: BIOL 122: Bioscience II

• Instructor: Joseph Kele, Ed.Dc., M.S.

• Semester: Spring 2025

• Information adapted from Openstax Biology 2e

Page 2: Overview of Blood

• Blood Volume: Approximately 5 liters circulate in the body.

• Blood Composition: Makes up about 8% of total body weight.

• Major Components:

  • Plasma: Liquid extracellular matrix.

  • Formed Elements: Cells and cell fragments in plasma, including:

    • Erythrocytes (RBCs)

    • Leukocytes (WBCs)

    • Thrombocytes (Platelets)

Page 3: Centrifuging Blood

• Blood Centrifugation: Separates blood into three layers:

  • Plasma: 55% of total blood volume.

  • Buffy Coat: 1% of volume, contains WBCs and platelets.

  • Hematocrit: 44% of total blood volume, precipitate of RBCs.

Page 4: Functions of Blood (Part 1)

• Exchanging Gases:

  • Oxygen (O2) transported from lungs to tissues by RBCs.

  • CO2 transported from tissues to lungs by RBCs and plasma.

• Distributing Solutes:

  • Plasma transports various solutes including nutrients and hormones.

  • Important for regulating ion concentrations in the body.

Page 5: Functions of Blood (Part 2)

• Immune Functions:

  • WBCs and immune proteins travel via blood to fight infections.

• Body Temperature Regulation:

  • Blood carries heat from metabolizing tissues to maintain temperature.

• Blood Clotting:

  • Thrombocytes form clots when blood vessels are damaged.

• Acid-Base Homeostasis:

  • pH maintained between 7.35 and 7.45.

• Stabilizing Blood Pressure:

  • Blood volume in circulation influences blood pressure.

Page 6: Plasma Composition

• Plasma Overview:

  • Pale-yellow liquid, primarily composed of water (90%).

  • Changes in water content impact blood viscosity and flow.

Page 7: Plasma Components

• Plasma Proteins:

  • Make up 9% of plasma, mainly produced by the liver.

  • Form colloids due to large size preventing full dissolution in water.

  • Types of Plasma Proteins:

    • Albumin

    • Immune Proteins (Antibodies)

    • Transport Proteins

    • Clotting Proteins

• Small molecules (1%): Glucose, nitrogenous wastes, O2, CO2.

Page 8: Albumin

• Albumin Function:

  • Large protein produced by the liver.

  • Responsible for blood's colloid osmotic pressure (COP).

  • COP draws water into the blood via osmosis.

Page 9: Immune Proteins

• Immune Proteins Overview:

  • Also known as antibodies, produced by leukocytes (WBCs).

  • Types of leukocytes producing antibodies:

    • Monocytes

    • Lymphocytes

    • Basophils

    • Eosinophils

    • Neutrophils

Page 10: Transport Proteins

• Transport Proteins Overview:

  • Hydrophilic proteins that associate with water molecules.

  • Examples include alpha- and beta-globulins, lipoproteins.

• Function:

  • Aid in transporting lipid-based (hydrophobic) molecules in blood.

Page 11: Clotting Proteins

• Clotting Proteins Overview:

  • Found in blood clots with thrombocytes.

  • Vital in stopping bleeding from damaged vessels.

Page 12: Blood Typing and Matching

• Blood Transfusion:

  • Involves transferring blood from a donor to a recipient.

• Antigens on Erythrocytes:

  • Responsible for different blood groups, derived from genetically determined CHO chains.

• Key Antigen Groups:

  • ABO Blood Group

  • Rh Blood Group

Page 13: The ABO Blood Group

• Antigens:

  • A-Antigen

  • B-Antigen

• Blood Types:

  • Type A: Only A-Antigen present.

  • Type B: Only B-Antigen present.

  • Type AB: Both A and B Antigens present.

  • Type O: Neither antigen present.

Page 14: The Rh Blood Group

• Rh Antigen (D-Antigen):

  • Classification of blood based on the presence or absence of this antigen.

  • Rh Positive: Has Rh antigen (Rh+).

  • Rh Negative: Lacks Rh antigen (Rh-).

Page 15: Blood Types Examples

• Type O+:

  • Has Rh antigen, lacks A/B antigens.

  • Most common type (38% U.S. population).

• Type AB-:

  • Lacks Rh antigen, has A and B antigens.

  • Least common type (1% U.S. population).

Page 16: Antibodies

• Antibodies Overview:

  • Produced by B-lymphocytes, bind to foreign antigens.

  • Function in agglutination of target antigens.

  • Agglutination can destroy RBCs (hemolysis).

Page 17: Determining Blood Type

• Testing Method:

  • A blood sample is treated with three antibodies:

    • Anti-A: Binds to A-antigens.

    • Anti-B: Binds to B-antigens.

    • Anti-Rh: Binds to Rh-antigens.

Page 18: Summary of Blood Types

• Blood Type versus Antibodies in Plasma:

  • Group A: Antibody Anti-B.

  • Group B: Antibody Anti-A.

  • Group AB: No antibodies.

  • Group O: Antibodies Anti-A and Anti-B.

Page 19: Blood Type Compatibility

• Compatibility Chart showing which blood types can receive which type without immune reaction.

• Perfect matches and incompatible types are indicated to show potential reactions.

Page 20: "Rh Factor" in Transfusions

• Importance of Rh Factor in determining transfusion compatibility, especially for certain combinations of donor and recipient blood types.

Page 21: Leukocytes and Immune Function

• Leukocytes (WBCs): Larger than RBCs with prominent nuclei.

  • Do not function in blood; use blood as transport to reach tissues.

  • Exit via endothelial cells of blood vessels after adhering to capillary walls.

Page 22: Varieties of Leukocytes

• Leukocytes Varieties:

  • Granulocytes: Cytoplasmic granules present.

  • Agranulocytes: Lack visible granules.

Page 23: Granulocytes Overview

• Granulocyte Structure: Single nucleus with lobes connected by bands.

• Granulocyte Types:

  • Neutrophils

  • Eosinophils

  • Basophils

Page 24: Neutrophils

• Type: Most common leukocyte (60-70% of WBCs).

• Characteristics: Stains lilac color; polymorphonuclear (3-6 lobes).

• Function: Phagocytize bacteria; attracted via chemotaxis to sites of injury.

Page 25: Neutrophil Function

• Chemotaxis: Attracted to damaged cells by chemical signals.

• Function Upon Arrival:

  • Kill bacteria, enhance inflammation, attract more WBCs.

Page 26: Eosinophils

• Characteristics: Red-staining from eosin dye; bilobed nuclei.

• Function: Respond to parasitic infections and allergic reactions; can mediate inflammation.

Page 27: Basophils

• Characteristics: Rarest leukocyte (<1%); dark purple-staining granules obscure nuclei.

• Function: Release chemicals that mediate inflammation.

Page 28: Agranulocytes Overview

• Agranulocytes: Lack visible granules, have lysosomes; types include lymphocytes and monocytes.

Page 29: Lymphocytes

• Characteristics: Second most numerous leukocyte (20-25% of WBCs); large, spherical nuclei.

• Function: Activated by antigens; types are B-Lymphocytes (B-Cells) and T-Lymphocytes (T-Cells).

Page 30: B-Cells vs T-Cells

• B-Cells: Produce antibodies targeting specific antigens.

• T-Cells: Do not produce antibodies; activate other immune system components when they bind to pathogens.

Page 31: Monocytes

• Characteristics: Largest leukocyte (3-8% of WBCs); U-shaped nuclei.

• Function: Mature into macrophages; phagocytize debris and activate immune responses via antigen presentation.

Page 32: Immune and Lymphatic Systems

• Function: Protects body from pathogens and cellular injury through coordinated processes.

Page 33: Introduction to Lymphatic System

• Components:

  • Lymphatic Vessels

  • Lymphatic Tissue and Organs (e.g., tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus).

Page 34: Functions of the Lymphatic System

• Function 1: Regulation of interstitial fluid volume; returns excess fluid to circulation.

• Function 2: Absorption of dietary fats; fats absorbed into lymphatic vessels travel to blood.

• Function 3: Immune functions; filters pathogens through lymphoid organs.

Page 35: Lymphatic Vessels

• Types: Lymphatic collecting vessels merge into lymph trunks that transport lymph back to the blood.

• Major Trunks: Includes lumbar, intestinal, jugular, bronchomediastinal, and subclavian trunks.

Page 36: Lymphatic Drainage

• Cisterna Chyli: Drainage site for intestinal and lumbar trunks.

• Ducts:

  • Thoracic Duct: drains left side and lower body into junction of left internal jugular and left subclavian veins.

  • Right Lymphatic Duct: drains upper right side into right internal jugular and right subclavian veins.

Page 37: Lymphatic Valves

• Valves: Prevent backward lymph flow; assist in transport towards the heart.

• Mechanism: Muscle contractions massage lymph through vessels.

Page 38: Lymphatic Capillaries

• Function: Form networks around blood capillaries; specialized lymphatic capillaries (lacteals) collect fats in the small intestine.

Page 39: Lymphatic vs. Blood Capillaries

• Differences:

  • Lymphatic capillaries are blind-ended (one-way); blood capillaries are two-way.

  • Walls: lymphatic endothelial cells flap open for fluid entry; blood endothelial cells tightly joined.

Page 40: Endothelial Cells of Lymphatic Capillaries

• Fluid Dynamics: Increased interstitial fluid pressure opens lymphatic endothelial cells, allowing large fluid volume entry; closes upon decreased pressure, controlling interstitial fluid levels.

Page 41: Extreme Permeability

• Permeability: Lymphatic capillaries allow easier entry of pathogens; can spread throughout the lymphatic system.

• Pathogen Control: Clusters of lymph nodes trap and limit pathogen spread.

Page 42: Lymphoid Tissues and Organs

• Tissue Type: Reticular connective tissue traps pathogens through reticular fibers.

Page 43: Cells of Lymphatic Tissues

• Main Cells: Include macrophages, B-lymphocytes (B-Cells), T-lymphocytes (T-Cells), dendritic cells, and reticular cells.

Page 44: Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)

• Characteristics: Clusters of lymphoid tissue protecting mucous membranes in GI tract, respiratory passages, and genitourinary tract; enriches B and T cell presence.

Page 45: Specialized MALT

• Spherical Clusters: Contain germinal centers with dividing B-Cells, specialized dendritic cells, and macrophages; located in tonsils, Peyer’s patches, and appendix.

Page 46: Tonsils

• Types of Tonsils:

  • Pharyngeal/Adenoid: in posterior nasal cavity.

  • Palatine: in oral cavity.

  • Lingual: at base of tongue.

• Function: Trap bacteria and debris; susceptible to inflammation (tonsillitis).

Page 47: Appendix

• Function: Bacterial defense in the large intestine; blockage may lead to appendicitis causing internal bleeding if untreated.

Page 48: Lymph Nodes

• Structure: Small, bean-shaped clusters found along lymphatic vessels.

• Locations: In designated areas – axillary, cervical, inguinal, mesenteric nodes.

Page 49: Anatomy of a Lymph Node

• Structure: External connective tissue capsule surrounding reticular fibers; two main regions – outer cortex and inner medulla, with T-Cells and B-Cells.

Page 50: Filtering Lymph Process

• Steps:

  • Lymph enters through afferent vessels.

  • Travels through reticular network trapping pathogens.

  • Cleansed lymph exits through efferent vessels; lymph nodes can swell due to high pathogen capture.

Page 51: Types of Immunity

• Innate/Nonspecific Immunity: Responds to all pathogens in the same way; quick response, dominant in early stages of infection.

• Adaptive/Specific Immunity: Individualized response to unique antigens through cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity.

Page 52: Comparing Immunity Types

• Adaptive Immunity Characteristics: Slower to respond, requires prior exposure for effectiveness, has immunological memory versus the rapid response of innate immunity.

Page 53: Surface Barriers

• Skin and Mucosae: Primary barriers against pathogen entry; skin is sturdy due to keratin, and mucous membranes secrete protective substances.

Page 54: Immune Cells Overview

• Main Immune Cells: Different leukocytes including both agranulocytes and granulocytes; phagocytes actively remove pathogens through ingestion.

Page 55: NK and Dendritic Cells

• Cell Types:

  • NK Cells: Act in innate immunity, target cancerous/virus-infected cells.

  • Dendritic Cells: Activate T-Cells by presenting antigens.

Page 56: Immune System Proteins

• Types:

  • Antibodies (from B-Cells),

  • Complement proteins (innate function),

  • Cytokines (regulators for immune activity).

Page 57: Components of Innate Immunity

• Definition: Comprises antimicrobial molecules, psychosocial cells like neutrophils, macrophages, and NK cells; triggers immediate responses.

Page 58: Phagocytes

• Types:

  • Macrophages: Derived from monocytes; active phagocytic cells that respond to injury.

  • Neutrophils: Effective against bacteria; release cytotoxic substances when faced with large pathogens.

Page 59: Eosinophils

• Function: Respond to parasitic infections and help mediate inflammation through releasing granular contents.

Page 60: Non-Phagocytic Cells

• NK Cells: Recognize abnormal cells; cytotoxic activities lead to cell destruction.

• Dendritic Cells: Present antigens to T-Cells for activation.

Page 61: Basophils

• Function: Involved in inflammatory responses; located in blood; release mediators for inflammation.

Page 62: The Complement System

• Composition: 20+ plasma proteins produced mostly by the liver; starts inactive and requires activation.

Page 63: Activation Pathways

• Classical Pathway: Begins with antibody binding to antigen.

• Alternative Pathway: Begins with C3's cleavage to C3b; both converge to activate C5.

Page 64: Effects of Activated Complement Proteins

• Cell Lysis: C5b creates membrane attack complex (MAC) for lysis.

• Inflammation: Enhances inflammatory response; attracts and activates leukocytes.

• Neutralization of Viruses: Blocks virus infection into host cells.

• Enhanced Phagocytosis: Opsonization makes phagocytes bind better to pathogens.

• Clearing Immune Complexes: Removes clusters of antigens bound to antibodies from circulation.

Page 65: Cytokines Overview

• Role: Proteins secreted by immune cells to enhance responses; include TNF, Interferons, and Interleukins.

Page 66: Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)

• Source: Secreted by activated macrophages.

• Effects: Promotes fever, attracts phagocytes, and increases their activity.

• Severe Response: High levels during infections can lead to septic shock.

Page 67: Interferons (INF)

• Source: Produced by macrophages and other immune cells; inhibit viral replication and activate immune components.

Page 68: Interleukins

• Function: Stimulate neutrophil production, activate T cells, and enhance immune responses.

Page 69: Inflammatory Response

• Stages: Triggered by cellular injury, leading to mediators promoting inflammation; involves recruitment of phagocytes.

Page 70: Effects of Inflammatory Mediators

• Vasodilation: Increased blood flow makes tissue red/hot.

• Increased Permeability: Leads to fluid leakage, causing swelling.

• Pain: Serves as a warning and helps prevent further injury.

• Chemotaxis: Recruits leukocytes to the injury site.

Page 71: Phagocyte Response Stages

• Macrophage Activation: Immediate response to clean up pathogens.

• Neutrophil Migration: Occurs slightly later; clears bacteria and cellular debris.

• Monocyte Migration: Monocytes become macrophages, taking longer.

Page 72: Leukocytosis Following Injury

• Bone Marrow Response: Increased production of leukocytes; leads to elevated WBC counts in response to inflammation.

Page 73: Final Response

• Outcomes: Accumulation of dead cells and tissue forms pus; signals prolonged inflammatory response; pus may condense when healing is completed.