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Medical Interventions Second Semester Exam Study Guide 2025
Chapter 5: The Science of Aging
Aging: The process of growing old, involving physical, psychological, and social changes.
Alzheimer’s Disease: A progressive brain disorder that gradually destroys memory and cognitive skills.
Death Rattle: A gurgling or rattling sound produced by air passing through fluid in the airways of a dying person.
Geriatrician: A physician who specializes in the care of elderly people.
Glycation: The process in which sugar molecules bind to proteins or fats, leading to tissue damage and aging.
Healthy Aging: Maintaining physical, mental, and social well-being as one ages.
Oxidative Stress: An imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants in the body, which can cause cell and tissue damage.
Senescence: The condition or process of deterioration with age.
Chronological Aging: The passage of time from birth to the present; measured in years.
Cosmetic Aging: Visible signs of aging affecting appearance, such as wrinkles and graying hair influenced by genetics and lifestyle.
Economic Aging: Implications and challenges of aging, like retirement planning and healthcare costs, affecting quality of life.
Psychological Aging: Mental and emotional changes, including cognitive functions and emotional well-being, varying individually.
Social Aging: Changes in social roles and relationships, such as retirement and loss of loved ones, affecting a sense of belonging.
Cross-Linking Theory: Connective tissue loses elasticity with age.
Error Catastrophe Theory: Aging results from accumulated errors in cellular molecules, eventually becoming incompatible with survival.
Free Radical Theory: Free radicals damage cells, proteins, and DNA, contributing to aging and diseases.
Free radicals are unchanged molecules that are highly reactive and short-lived.
Can attack DNA leading to mutations dysfunction, and cancer.
Can attack enzymes and proteins, this disrupting cellular activities.
Rate of Living Theory: The faster an organism's metabolism, the shorter its lifespan.
Somatic Mutation Theory: Accumulation of mutations in genetic material of somatic cells decreases cellular function over time.
Wear and Tear Theory: Aging results from repeated use and injury to body parts over time.
Fat Distribution: Subcutaneous fat decreases, while visceral fat increases with age.
Geriatrician Characteristics: Patient, compassionate, and has expertise in managing complex health issues.
Harm of Free Radicals: They damage cells, proteins, and DNA, contributing to aging and diseases.
Factors Influencing Life Expectancy in the U.S.: Healthcare access, lifestyle, genetics, and socioeconomic conditions.
Emotional Stages of Coming to Terms with Death: Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
Signs of Death: Decreased consciousness, slowed breathing, and loss of reflexes.
Chapter 6: Drugs
Drugs: Any chemical substance that affects the body and its processes.
Analgesic: Over-the-counter pain relievers (e.g., Aspirin, Ibuprofen, Acetaminophen).
Depressants: Slows down the actions of the central nervous system & the heart. Causes a feeling of relaxation & sleepiness Cause damage to the brain, liver, & pancreas
Drug Abuse: The excessive & persistent use of over the counter drugs & prescription drugs.
Drug Misuse: When a drug is taken in a incorrect way or manner.
Enteric: Relating to the small intestine.
Histamine-2 Blockers: Medications that reduce stomach acid production.
Hypersensitivity Reactions:
Stimulants: Speed up the performance of the central nervous system. Stimulants raise levels of physiological or nervous activity in the body.
Stimulants -increase alertness, attention and energy
elevate blood pressure, heart rate and respiration
Types of Stimulants: Caffeine, Amphetamines, Cocaine, nicotine, Adderall, Ritalin
Chemical Name: Describes the atomic or molecular structure of the drug.
Generic Name: Usually has the same ending if it’s of a particular type of class
Trade Name: Chosen by the pharmaceutical company that manufactures or distributes the drug
Caffeine Symptoms: Makes a person feel more energetic, restless, & sleepless. May lead to frequent urinating & diarrhea
Long-term use of taking heavy doses can result in a heart attack, damage to the respiratory system & death
Decongestants Symptoms: Increased heart rate, nervousness, insomnia, high blood pressure.
LSD Symptoms: Hallucinations, altered time perception, dilated pupils, anxiety.
Marijuana Symptoms: Euphoria, red eyes, dry mouth, increased appetite, impaired memory.
PCP Symptoms: Hallucinations, numbness, aggression, confusion, detachment from reality.
Chapter 7: Immunology Part 1
Antigens: Foreign substances (usually proteins) that trigger an immune response.
Autoimmune Disorder: Foreign substances (usually proteins) that trigger an immune response.
Chemotaxis: Movement of immune cells toward the site of infection in response to chemical signals.
Cytokines: Signaling proteins released by immune cells to regulate immunity and inflammation.
Cytotoxic T Cell: A T cell that kills infected or cancerous cells (also called CD8+ T cells).
Helper T Cell: Activates B cells and other T cells by releasing cytokines (also called CD4+ T cells).
Humoral Immunity: Immunity involving B cells and antibodies circulating in bodily fluids.
Killer T Cell: Same as cytotoxic T cell—destroys infected or abnormal cells.
Memory Cell: A long-living immune cell that “remembers” past infections for faster future responses.
Plasma Cell: A B cell that produces and releases antibodies.
Normal Immune Response:
Recognition of antigens.
Activation of immune cells (B cells, T cells, etc.).
Attack on invaders using antibodies and/or cytotoxic cells.
Memory formation for faster response next time.
Identification Molecules in the Human Immune System:
MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex): Proteins on cells that display antigens.
MHC I: Found on all body cells; displays to cytotoxic T cells.
MHC II: Found on antigen-presenting cells; displays to helper T cells.
Antibodies: Proteins made by B cells that bind to specific antigens.
Comparison between B cells and T cells:
B cells mature in the bone marrow and are responsible for producing antibodies as part of humoral immunity.
T cells mature in the thymus and carry out cell-mediated immunity by directly killing infected cells or helping activate other immune cells.
Structures of the Primary and Second Lines of Defense:
The first line of defense includes physical and chemical barriers like the skin, mucus, saliva, and stomach acid.
The second line of defense includes innate immune responses such as inflammation, fever, phagocytic cells (like neutrophils and macrophages), and natural killer cells.
Primary and Secondary Lymphoid Organs:
The primary lymphoid organs are the bone marrow and thymus, where B and T cells develop and mature.
The secondary lymphoid organs include the lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and Peyer’s patches, where immune responses are initiated.
Nonspecific (Innate) Immunity Cells:
Basophils: release histamine and are involved in allergic reactions.
Eosinophils: help combat parasitic infections and also contribute to allergic responses.
Monocytes: circulate in the blood and become macrophages, which engulf pathogens and debris.
Natural killer cells: kill virus-infected and cancerous cells without needing prior exposure.
Neutrophil: are the first immune cells to respond to infection and they kill pathogens through phagocytosis.
Chapter 8: Immunology Part 2
Antibody: is a protein, also called an immunoglobulin (Ig), produced by B cells in response to a foreign antigen, helping the body fight off infections.
Cell Agglutination: is the clumping together of cells, often caused by antibodies binding to antigens on the surface of cells.
Cell Mediated Immunity: involves T cells directly attacking infected or abnormal cells without using antibodies.
Complement System: is a group of proteins that work with antibodies to destroy pathogens by forming pores in their membranes.
Dendritic Cells: are antigen-presenting cells that process and display antigens to T cells, initiating the adaptive immune response.
Epitope: is the specific part of an antigen that an antibody or T-cell receptor recognizes and binds to.
Hematopoiesis: is the process of forming blood cells, including all immune cells, from stem cells in the bone marrow.
Specific (Adaptive) Immunity: is a learned immune response tailored to specific antigens that the body remembers for faster future responses.
Stem Cells: are undifferentiated cells that can develop into various specialized cell types, including immune cells.
Parts of the Antibody Molecule:
Constant region: determines the antibody’s class and function and is the same for all antibodies of a given class.
Heavy chains: are the larger polypeptide chains of the antibody, each containing one variable and several constant regions.
Hinge region: provides flexibility so the antibody can bind to antigens at various angles.
Light chains: are the smaller polypeptide chains, each with one variable and one constant region, attached to the heavy chains.
Variable region: is the part of the antibody that binds specifically to an epitope on the antigen and varies between different antibodies.
Characteristics of Stem Cells: Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can self-renew and differentiate into specialized cells. They are essential for growth, repair, and immune cell development.
Types of Stem Cells:
Multipotent stem cells: can develop into a limited range of cells within a specific family, such as blood cells (e.g., hematopoietic stem cells).
Pluripotent stem cells: can become any cell type in the body except for placental cells (e.g., embryonic stem cells).
Totipotent stem cells: can develop into all cell types in the body, including the placenta, and are found in early embryos.
Chapter 9: Disease
Chancres: are firm, painless skin ulcers that appear on the genitals in the first stage of syphilis.
Communicable Disease: is a contagious illness that can spread from an infected person to a non-infected person, often via direct contact or a vector.
Coronary Heart Disease: is caused by the narrowing of coronary arteries due to plaque buildup, which restricts blood flow to the heart.
Disease: is an abnormal condition that prevents the body from functioning normally.
Non-Communicable Disease: is not spread by germs from person to person and includes chronic conditions like cancer and heart disease.
Rheumatic Fever: is an illness that can follow untreated strep throat and may damage heart valves.
Vector: is an agent, like a mosquito, that transmits infectious diseases from one organism to another.
Nutritional Disorders in Less Developed Countries:
Beriberi: is caused by a deficiency of vitamin B1 (thiamine) and leads to weakness and nerve damage.
Kwashiorkor: is caused by a protein deficiency and leads to swelling, liver damage, and developmental delays.
Rickets: results from a lack of vitamin D, calcium, or phosphate and causes soft, weak bones, especially in children.
Scurvy: is caused by a deficiency of vitamin C and leads to gum disease, fatigue, and poor wound healing.
Anorexia vs. Bulimia:
Anorexia is an eating disorder characterized by self-starvation and excessive weight loss, often due to a distorted body image.
Bulimia involves cycles of binge eating followed by purging, such as vomiting or excessive exercise, to avoid weight gain.
Bradycardia vs. Tachycardia:
Bradycardia: is a condition where the heart beats slower than normal.
Tachycardia: is when the heart beats faster than normal.
Characteristics of Heart Disease: Heart disease refers to conditions involving narrowed or blocked blood vessels, high blood pressure, and irregular heart rhythms. It may be caused by poor diet, lack of exercise, and plaque buildup, leading to conditions like arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis, and coronary heart disease. Heart valves may become damaged due to conditions like rheumatic fever, and heart rhythm may be disrupted, resulting in bradycardia or tachycardia.
Characteristics of Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, and Syphilis:
Chlamydia: is caused by bacteria, often shows no symptoms at first, and can cause genital ulcers and painful urination; it is treatable with antibiotics.
Gonorrhea: also bacterial, infects the urinary tract and causes a burning sensation during urination and pus discharge; symptoms may not always appear, and it is also treatable.
Syphilis: is a bacterial infection that progresses in stages, starting with chancres, followed by rashes and internal organ damage if untreated; early treatment with antibiotics is effective.
Characteristics of Herpes Simplex Virus-2:
HSV-2 is a viral infection that causes painful blisters on the genitals, fever, and headaches.
It can be transmitted sexually and from mother to baby during childbirth.
There is no cure, but symptoms can be managed with antiviral medications.
Chapter 10: The Biology of AIDS
Abstinence: is the practice of refraining from sexual activity and is one of the most effective ways to prevent HIV transmission.
AIDS Wasting: is a condition in which a person with AIDS experiences severe weight loss and muscle wasting due to infection.
Capsid: is the protein shell of the HIV virus that encloses its genetic material.
CD4+ Count: measures the number of CD4+ T cells in the blood and indicates the health of the immune system; a count below 200 cells/\muL signifies AIDS.
Glycoprotein: are proteins with carbohydrate chains on the surface of HIV that help it bind to host cells.
Oncovirus: is a type of retrovirus that can cause cancer.
P24 Antigen: is a core protein of HIV that can be detected in blood early after infection and is used in screening tests.
Retrovirus: is a virus that stores its genetic material as RNA and replicates in host cells using reverse transcription.
Reverse Transcriptase: is the enzyme used by HIV to convert its RNA into DNA inside a host cell.
Thrush: is a fungal infection (caused by Candida) that commonly affects the mouth and throat in people with weakened immune systems, like those with AIDS.
Viral Load: refers to the amount of HIV in the blood and helps predict how quickly the disease may progress.
HIV originates from a virus called SIV (Simian Immunodeficiency Virus) found in nonhuman primates.
HIV belongs to the retrovirus category of viruses.
HIV falls under the lentivirus class of retroviruses, which are slow-acting viruses.
Symptoms that may occur due to HIV infection:
Early symptoms of HIV may include fever, rashes, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes.
These symptoms may disappear, and the virus can remain latent for years.
As HIV progresses, opportunistic infections and cancers may appear, and symptoms such as thrush and AIDS wasting can develop.
Drug Classes to Treat HIV Infection:
Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) interfere with the enzyme reverse transcriptase, preventing HIV from replicating.
Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) also target reverse transcriptase but in a different way from NRTIs.
Protease inhibitors block the HIV enzyme protease, which is essential for producing mature virus particles.
HIV can be transmitted through blood, semen, vaginal secretions, and breast milk.
A person is diagnosed with full-blown AIDS when their CD4+ count falls below 200 cells per microliter of blood.
Chapter 11: Cancer
Alternative Medicine: treatments that are used instead of standard medical therapies, such as herbal remedies, acupuncture, and homeopathy.
Cancer: is a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell growth and the potential to spread to other parts of the body.
Carcinogen: is any substance or agent that can cause cancer, such as tobacco smoke, asbestos, or radiation.
Cardiac Tamponade: is a serious medical condition where fluid builds up in the sac around the heart, preventing it from pumping effectively.
Chemotherapy: is a type of cancer treatment that uses powerful drugs to kill or stop the growth of cancer cells.
Immunotherapy: is a treatment that uses the body’s immune system to help fight cancer.
Metastasis: is the process by which cancer cells spread from the original tumor to other parts of the body.
Neoplasm: is an abnormal growth of tissue that can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).
Pleural Effusion: is the buildup of excess fluid between the layers of tissue surrounding the lungs, which can occur with cancer.
Radiation Therapy: uses high-energy rays (like X-rays) to kill or damage cancer cells.
Remission: is a period during which the signs and symptoms of cancer are reduced or disappear.
Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: occurs when a tumor compresses the superior vena cava, causing swelling and breathing difficulties.
Staging: is the process of determining how much cancer is in the body and where it is located.
Tumor: is a mass of abnormal cells that can be either benign or malignant.
A benign tumor does not spread and is usually not life-threatening, while a malignant tumor can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body, making it cancerous.
Types of Cancers:
Carcinoma: arises from epithelial cells and is the most common type of cancer.
Leukemia: is a cancer of the blood-forming tissues, typically starting in the bone marrow.
Lymphoma: is a cancer that begins in the lymphatic system, often affecting lymph nodes.
Sarcoma: is a cancer that starts in connective tissues such as bone, muscle, or fat.
Leiomyosarcoma: is a malignant tumor of smooth muscle tissue.
Osteosarcoma: is a malignant tumor that originates in bone tissue.
Cancer Prefixes:
Adeno- (gland) → adenocarcinoma
Osteo- (bone) → osteosarcoma
Lipo- (fat) → liposarcoma
Leiomyo- (smooth muscle) → leiomyosarcoma
Tumor markers are substances, often proteins, found in the blood, urine, or tissues that may indicate the presence of cancer and are used to help diagnose, monitor treatment, and check for recurrence.
Paraneoplastic syndromes are rare disorders triggered by an immune response to cancer in the body, affecting systems not directly impacted by the tumor itself (e.g., nervous system, hormones).
Chapter 12: Conventional Methods of Health Interventions Sections 1 & 2
Antibiotic: is a drug used to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.
Antibiotic Resistance: occurs when bacteria adapt and become unaffected by a previously effective antibiotic.
Capsules: are protective outer layers found in some bacteria that help prevent phagocytosis by immune cells.
ELISA Test (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) is used to detect the presence of antibodies or antigens in a sample.
Flagella: are tail-like structures that allow bacteria to move.
Endotoxins: are toxins released when Gram-negative bacteria die, causing inflammation and fever.
Medical Interventions: refer to actions taken to treat or prevent illness, such as surgery, medication, or therapy.
Pili: are hair-like appendages on bacteria that help them attach to surfaces or transfer DNA.
Plasmids: are small, circular DNA molecules in bacteria that often carry antibiotic resistance genes.
Transgenic Bacteria: are genetically modified to produce substances such as insulin or growth hormones.
The first step of a medical investigation is identifying symptoms, and the second step is collecting patient history and performing diagnostic tests.
Unhealthy lifestyle choices include smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, poor diet, lack of physical activity, and not getting enough sleep. These behaviors increase the risk for chronic diseases such as heart disease and diabetes.
The main difference is that a standard MRI creates detailed images of the structure of organs and tissues, while a functional MRI (fMRI) measures and maps brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.
Differences between Gram Positive and Gram Negative bacteria:
Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan wall and stain purple.
Gram-negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan layer and an outer membrane, staining pink.
Gram-negative bacteria are more resistant to antibiotics due to their outer membrane.
Resistant bacteria spread in hospitals, through contaminated surfaces, tools, or hands, and in the community through improper use of antibiotics (e.g., not finishing a prescription or using antibiotics when not needed).