AP BIO

AP Biology Test Review 

1. DNA as a double helix:

   1. What is the backbone made of?

2. What are the steps of the ladder?

3. What term describes nitrogenous bases with 2 rings?  What bases are they?

4. What term describes nitrogenous bases with 1 ring?  What bases are they?

5. What are the base pair rules and what bond holds them together?

6. What part of the backbone do the bases bond to?  What type of bonds hold the backbone together?

7. Describe the antiparallel arrangement of DNA.

DNA Replication

8. Why is the replication of DNA called a semiconservative model?

9. Describe the function of helicase and topoisomerase.

10. Describe the function of primase (which molecule does it use DAN or RNA?).

 11. Describe the function of the RNA primers.

12. Describe the functions of DNA polymerase (how does it read/build?)

13. Describe the function of DNA ligase.

14. Differentiate between the leading strand and lagging strand and be able to explain the slight difference in replication of each.

Replication of DNA Ends

15. Describe the problem with replication of the 5’ ends of a linear DNA molecule.

16. Define a telomere.

17. What is the job of telomerase?

18. What happens to your DNA over time?  Why doesn’t this happen to cancer?

Gene to Protein

19. Define transcription.

20. Define translation.

21. Why are transcription and translation separated in eukaryotes and not in prokaryotes?

22. What are the differences between DNA and RNA?

Transcription

23. What term describes the DNA sequence where RNA Polymerase attaches?

24. What sequence/nucleotides are common in eukaryotic promoters?

25. RNA Processing:

1. Alteration of ends

   1.  5’ cap

   2.  Poly A tail

RNA Splicing

26. Explain eukaryotes and RNA splicing (introns vs. exons).

27. What are snRNPs/ spliceosomes?  What do they do?

Translation

28. Define a codon.

29. What is tRNA?  What does it do?

30. Describe the structure of the ribosome.

a ) P site

b) A site

c) E site

 31. Describe initiation of translation (where does it always start?)

32. Describe elongation of translation.

1. Codon recognition vs Anticodon

2. Peptide bond formation

33. Describe termination of translation (what codes?)

34. Define polyribosomes.

New Genes

35. Define mutation.

36. Define point mutation.

37. Define base pair substitution and the possible results.

38. Distinguish missense mutations from nonsense mutations.

39. Describe a frameshift mutation.

40. Define mutagen.  Give an example of how they may work.

41. Explain how mutations are overall neutral, but could be an advantage or disadvantage

42.  Explain two LARGE Scale mutations through the process of nondisjunction. 

Viruses:

• Viruses are DNA or RNA (ds or ss) enclosed in Capsid – Protein shell that encloses viral genome.

• Host Range –  Why is this normally a low number? 

• Obligate Parasites = reproduce within a cell and use the host’s cell machinery to replicate.

• Lytic Cycle – phage reproduction that causes death of host cell (lysis). 

• Lysogenic Cycle – phage reproduction that replicates phage genome without destroying the host (virus can lay dormant for a while but has become part of the genome).

• Retroviruses Have reverse transcriptase, - what does that do?

• Treatment = Can you use antibiotics?  Can you use vaccines? 

Bacteria:

• Reproduce asexually by binary fission. All are clones of the original. 

• Transformation = 

• Conjugation = 

• Plasmid = A small, circular, self-replicating DNA molecule that exists separate from a bacterial chromosome.

Could you recognize the following below? 

• Repressible Operon – can be inhibited when a small molecule binds to regulatory protein.

  • Example is Trp Operon (tryptophan) (negative feedback, trp turns it off)

  • Repressible operons are usually on and can be turned off when necessary. 

• Inducible Operon – can be stimulated when a small molecule binds to regulatory protein. Ex Lac (lactose)

  • Example is Lac Operon (lactose digestion) (lactose turns it on)

  • Inducible operons are usually off and can be turned on when necessary. (think inducing labor)

DNA Tech:

• Restriction enzymes (restriction endonucleases) cut DNA at a specific location, called the restriction site.

  • Staggered cut produces single-stranded (sticky) ends

  • Insert a gene of interest, and link back together with Ligase.

• PCR = A target DNA segment can be quickly amplified in a test tube. Denaturation, Annealing, Extension. Polymerase Chain Reaction.

• Gel Electrophoresis - Separate nucleic acids on the basis of size, electrical charge, and other properties.

  • Load at the negative side (DNA is negative)

  • Turn on electricity and DNA will move towards positive side

  • Smaller segments of DNA travel farther as they are lighter and easier to move through pores in gel. This process allows for the visualization and analysis of DNA fragments, making it a crucial technique in molecular biology for applications such as genetic fingerprinting and cloning.