2 GENERAL THEORIES ABOUT LA

1. INTRODUCTION.

Language learning has been studied since ancient times, with early approaches primarily emphasizing the role of the teacher as the central figure in the instructional process. For centuries, learners were often viewed passive recipients of knowledge, expected to absorb linguistic structures through repetition and memorization. However, the 20th century marked a turning point, as linguists and educational theorists began to shift their focus toward understanding how languages are learned, rather than merely how they should be taught.

This shift in perspective led to a growing recognition of the learner as an active participant in the language acquisition process—someone who interacts with input, formulates hypotheses, and gradually constructs their own linguistic system. This learner-centered view has significant implications for language teaching, particularly in the design of curricula and syllabi. When educators have a solid understanding of how students learn languages, they are better equipped to facilitate that process through appropriate methods, materials, and learning environments.

To inform effective second language instruction, it is crucial to first consider how a first language (L1) is acquired. Insights from first language acquisition research offer valuable foundations for understanding second language acquisition (SLA), even though the two processes are not identical. SLA is influenced by a variety of cognitive, social, and affective factors that may differ significantly from those at play in L1 development.

This study provides a framework of the most relevant theories that have been proposed for language acquisition as well as exploring the concepts of interlanguage and the treatment of error. 

2. ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE: STAGES.

As far as language acquisition is concerned, several distinct stages can be identified in a child’s early linguistic development. Under normal circumstances, this process is significantly facilitated by the typical behaviors of adults and other children in the child’s environment. Adults, in particular, do not address infants in the same way they would speak to other adults. Instead, they adopt a modified form of speech known as caretaker speech or child-directed speech (CDS). This type of discourse is characterized by simplified vocabulary, exaggerated intonation, higher pitch, slower tempo, and frequent use of questions and repetition, all of which support the child’s language development.

The first notable stage in this process occurs around the sixth month, when the infant begins to babble. Babbling involves the production of repetitive, speech-like but meaningless sounds that resemble the phonetic structures of human language. While the exact role of babbling is not fully understood, it is widely accepted that it plays a foundational part in the development of speech. Crucially, exposure to spoken language input is essential during this stage; without sufficient auditory input, normal language acquisition cannot proceed.

Around ten to eleven months, children begin to use more varied and complex babbling patterns that include recognizable syllabic structures. During this time, they start to express emotions and emphasize their intentions through intonation and gesture, often attempting to imitate the speech patterns of adults.

Between approximately twelve and eighteen months, children typically enter the single-word stage (also known as the holophrastic stage). In this phase, they begin to use single words—often nouns or familiar objects—to represent whole ideas or requests. These words are usually context-dependent and may serve multiple communicative functions (e.g., “milk” might mean "I want milk" or "There's milk").

Around the second year of life, children progress to producing two-word utterances. These combinations generally lack syntactic or morphological markers but convey meaning through word order and context (e.g., “want juice,” “daddy go”). Despite their simplicity, adults typically respond as though genuine communication is occurring, reinforcing the child’s efforts and encouraging further linguistic development.

Following this stage, children begin to produce multi-word utterances, entering what is often called the telegraphic stage. During this period, their speech consists mostly of content words (nouns, verbs, and adjectives), while function words (such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and prepositions) and grammatical morphemes (e.g., plural -s, past tense -ed) are still largely absent. As a result, their speech resembles a telegram—brief, to the point, and stripped of grammatical detail (e.g., “Mommy go work,” “me want cookie”).

At this stage of language acquisition, it is useful to reflect on the influence adults exert on the process, if any. While it may appear that adults are explicitly teaching language to children, this is generally not the case. Children do not receive formal instruction on how to speak; rather, language acquisition occurs naturally through immersion and interaction within their environment. It is also inaccurate to view the child's mind as a blank slate that is gradually filled with words. A more accurate and contemporary perspective is that the child is actively constructing and expanding their linguistic repertoire through continuous engagement with their surroundings.

Between the ages of approximately two and two and a half years, children begin to produce longer utterances composed of multiple words, coinciding with the emergence of grammatical morphemes. In English, one of the earliest morphemes to appear is typically the progressive -ing (e.g., running, playing). Soon after, children acquire the plural -s, though its development is often marked by overgeneralization—a common phenomenon in which regular rules are applied to irregular forms (e.g., foots instead of feet). This is followed by the emergence of irregular plurals and the possessive -’s (e.g., daddy’s car).

Subsequently, different forms of the verb "to be" (e.g., is, are, was) are acquired, and later, the third-person singular -s (e.g., he runs) is introduced. These morphological developments typically occur alongside the gradual mastery of syntactic structures, including the formation of questions and the use of negation, which also appear to follow a consistent developmental sequence across children.

The formation of questions evolves in a relatively predictable order. The question word "what" is often the first wh-word to appear, followed closely by "where" and "who". Around the age of two, children begin to use "why", reflecting their growing curiosity and cognitive development. Finally, as children gain a better understanding of abstract concepts such as manner and time, they begin to use "how" and "when" appropriately.

Similarly, the development of negation can be observed from a very early stage, even during the single-word phase. Initially, children use words like "no" or "not" placed at the beginning of an utterance (e.g., No want cookie). As their syntactic awareness grows, these negative markers are more accurately placed before the verb (e.g., I not want it), and eventually, auxiliary verbs are incorporated into negative constructions (e.g., I don’t want it).

Once we are in this stage, it might be useful to reflect on the influence adults exert in LA, if any. Since the child's repertoire is developing, it is taking for granted that language is somehow being taught; but this is not the case. Children do not receive instructions about how to speak and we should not imagine either an empty brain that is gradually filled with words. A much more realistic vision is that the child is constantly developing his language repertoire. In fact, between two and two and a half years, the child begins to produce phrases made of several words due to the fact that they start using morphemes. The first morpheme to appear in English is usually -ing. The acquisition of the plural is often accompanied by a process of over-generalization in words such as 'foots'. Then, irregular plurals appear at the same time as the genitive. After that, different forms of the verb to be are used and finally the third singular person. The development of morphology is accompanied by the development of syntax which seems to be acquired in a regular way: making questions and negating. There is a remarkable consistency in the way children learn to form questions. 'What' is generally the first wh-question word to be used. 'Where' and 'Who' emerge very soon and then 'why' emerges around the second year. Finally, when the children has a better understanding of manner and time, 'how' and 'when' emerge. Children learn the functions of negation very early, even at the single word stage. At the first, they place no or not at the beginning of the expression they want to negate. Then, negative forms are placed before the verb and finally auxiliary forms are introduced. 

3. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.

By the age of five, children have typically completed first language acquisition and are ready to begin learning a second language. The core question in SLA is how children can infer grammatical rules from the language they hear and then use those rules to produce sentences they’ve never heard before.

3.1. KEY PERSPECTIVES ON LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.

3.1.1. NATIVISM (MENTALISM).

In the 1960s, Noam Chomsky revolutionized the field with his theory of generative grammar, which proposes that humans are born with an innate linguistic capacity, or Universal Grammar. According to Chomsky:

• Children do not learn language by memorizing phrases.

• They are capable of generating and understanding entirely new sentences.

• Language is a rule-based system, not merely a collection of habits.

• Learners develop both linguistic competence (grammatical rules) and communicative competence (pragmatic use).

Other mentalists, such as Rod Ellis, emphasized that this ability is biologically rooted, enabling humans to form hypotheses and refine them based on exposure and experience.

3.1.2. COGNITIVISM.

Cognitive theorists argue that language learning stems from general cognitive abilities rather than a specialized language module. Key ideas include:

• Language learning is shaped by simplified input, especially from caregivers.

• In the 1970s, research showed that parents unconsciously adapt their speech—using shorter sentences, slower pace, repetition, and rephrasing—to support language development.

This view suggests that language emerges from patterns, interactions, and general mental processes rather than from an innate grammar.

3.1.3. BEHAVIOURISM.

Behaviorist theories, especially those of B.F. Skinner, view language acquisition as a process of imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. Learning is driven by environmental stimuli and responses:

• Correct utterances are reinforced.

• Incorrect ones are discouraged.

• Tools like the Skinner Box were used to condition learning behavior through programmed instruction.

However, behaviorism was later criticized for failing to explain the creativity and complexity of language use, especially the spontaneous generation of novel sentences.

3.1.4. CREATIVE CONSTRUCTION THEORY.

In response to behaviorism, the creative construction theory holds that learners actively construct their own rules. Errors are viewed as natural developmental steps rather than signs of failure. This aligns with the notion that language acquisition is a creative, not imitative, process.

3.2. KRASHEN’S MONITOR MODEL.

In the late 1970s, Stephen Krashen proposed five influential hypotheses that together form the Monitor Model:

• The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis. Krashen identifies 2 types of linguistic knowledge: first, acquisition which is an unconscious process where meaning and comprehensible input are emphasized and where errors are considered to be part of the process and second, learning which takes place as a result of formal study of the language and thus it is a conscious process. Learning has only one function, either editor or monitor, which is to make corrections or change our output. 

• The Natural Order Hypothesis: establishes that grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order. 

• The Monitor Hypothesis: states that conscious knowledge (learning) serves only as a monitor to edit speech. Krashen explains the difference between acquisition and learning through this theory. He states that learning is only used to make self-corrections and that it is not responsible for fluency. He gives 3 conditions for the use of the monitor: first there must be enough time, second, the focus must be on form and finally, the user must know the rule. He also identifies 3 types of learners: the over-users who are the ones that learn without acquisition and they are constantly checking their output and have difficulties in fluency as they use the monitor all the time. The under-users; they rely on acquisition and do not use the monitor to any extent. And the optimal-users who use the monitor when it is appropriate. 

• The Input Hypothesis remarks that acquisition takes place as a result of the learner having understood input which is a little beyond the current level of competence. This language is understood by using context or our knowledge of the world, and in the same way, it is made understandable to us through the use of visual clues, gestures or key words. 

• And the Affective Filter Hypothesis which considers the amount of input the learner receives and how much input is transformed into intake. The affective filter is a barrier that prevents learners from acquiring language. Therefore, it produces a mental block that prevents input from entering. 

Krashen summarizes his 5 hypotheses with a single claim: People acquire SL when they obtain comprehensible input and their affective filter is low enough to allow the input in. 

3.3. CONSTRUCTIVISM.

Constructivist theories emphasize that learning is an active, reflective process where learners build knowledge through experience and interaction. In this view:

• Errors are not mistakes but evidence of cognitive development.

• Learning is most effective when input is:

  • Relevant to the learner’s needs.

  • Meaningful, connected to prior knowledge.

  • Comprehensible, facilitated by interaction and context.

3.3.1. LOMLOE.

This approach is closely aligned with the LOMLOE, which promotes competency-based, meaningful, and student-centred learning. According to the LOMLOE:

• Learning must start from the learner’s prior knowledge and experiences.

• Teaching should foster meaningful and contextualised learning, allowing students to transfer knowledge across different areas and real-life situations.

• Errors are seen as an integral and valuable part of the learning process, contributing to cognitive development.

• The teacher plays the role of a facilitator and guide, supporting learners in building autonomy and reflective thinking.

3.3.2. KEY FIGURES.

• Piaget has been the dominant figure in cognitive development psychology. He emphasises the constructive nature of the learning process. Individuals are actively involved from birth in constructing personal meaning from their experiences. He also saw cognitive development as a process of maturation. The developing mind is constantly seeking balance between what is known and what is currently being experienced. This is accomplished by the complementary processes of assimilation (fitting new info into existing knowledge) and accommodation (adjusting prior knowledge to incorporate new info).

• For Bruner, the process of education is at least as important as its product. His ideas gave rise to important notions such as the spiral curriculum, which claims that teachers should introduce first the basic ideas that give life and form to any topic and then revisit and build upon them repeatedly. He also gave importance to the notion of scaffolding, which means to achieve the right balance between structure and flexibility in the lessons to allow learners to discover principles for themselves. Finally, his notions of formats and routines are also essential. They allow scaffolding to take place and combine the security of the familiar with the excitement of the new, and they provide opportunities for meaningful development. 

• Finally, for Vygotsky, the child is an active learner, and language develops primarily from social interaction. Mediation is a term used to refer to those who mediate the world for the children and make it accessible to them. His most widely known concept is the zone of proximal development, which is a layer of skill or knowledge which is just beyond what the learner is currently capable of coping with. 

4. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING.

Language acquisition is influenced by various personal and cognitive factors. As Ellis (1985) points out, individual differences such as the following significantly affect second language development:

• Learning style: Learners approach tasks differently; some prefer visual input, others auditory or kinesthetic. Some learners favor analytical methods, while others thrive in communicative contexts.

• Personality: Traits like extroversion, risk-taking, or anxiety levels can influence willingness to communicate and tolerate ambiguity.

• Age: Although younger learners are often more successful in acquiring native-like pronunciation, older learners can benefit from more developed cognitive strategies.

• The role of the first language (L1): Learners rely on their L1 as a reference point when constructing knowledge of the new language. This influence can either facilitate or interfere with the acquisition process.

5. INTERLANGUAGE AND THE ROLE OF ERRORS IN SLA.

The concept of interlanguage, first introduced by Larry Selinker (1972), refers to the evolving linguistic system that a learner constructs while progressing toward mastery of a second language (L2). It is dynamic, systematic, and unique to each learner.

Interlanguage reflects the learner’s current linguistic competence, incorporating elements from the L1, the L2, and developmental patterns unique to the learner. It evolves over time through exposure, interaction, and feedback. Selinker proposed that errors are not signs of failure but essential indicators of learning and cognitive development. Learners test hypotheses about the target language, and errors reveal the rules they are currently applying.

5.1. ERROR ANALYSIS AND CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS.

Two major approaches to studying learner errors are:

• Contrastive Analysis (CA): This approach compares the learner's native language and the target language to predict potential areas of difficulty. Errors are explained through negative transfer—when structures differ—and positive transfer, when similarities support learning. Rooted in behaviorism, CA aimed to prevent errors by anticipating them.

• Error Analysis (EA): Developed as a reaction to the limitations of CA, Error Analysis examines actual learner performance, regardless of L1 influence. It recognizes that not all errors are due to transfer; many stem from developmental processes within interlanguage itself.

5.2. PERSPECTIVES ON ERROR.

From a behaviorist perspective, errors are the result of habit interference. The learner’s first language habits persist and interfere with the formation of new ones. Behaviorists emphasized drill and reinforcement to replace incorrect habits with correct ones.

Cognitivist theories, in contrast, accept error as a natural and necessary part of language learning. Through hypothesis testing, learners construct and revise their internal rules, gradually refining their interlanguage toward greater accuracy and fluency. Errors are not to be suppressed but understood and used to guide teaching.

 6. TEACHING IMPLICATIONS.

Before finishing, I would like to comment on the teaching implications this topic might offer. To begin with, I would like to justify the topic in the English curriculum. LOMCE proposed a communicative approach to foreign languages; an approach which implies the consideration of not only grammatical aspects but also historical, cultural and literary characteristics of the countries where English is spoken. In this context, this topic has a relevant role in the English curriculum as it can be a tool to transmit to our students linguistic and cultural competences. 

On top of that, the current law (LOMCE) and the Council of Europe prioritize the development of the communicative competence and they establish many methodological principles of great use for this topic. These principles and the communicative competence are also reflected in the Royal Decree of 26th of December and in the Order of 26th of May of 2016.

Even though these theories are just theoretical models, they do have an influence on teaching practice. We many not be able to say at this point how we must teach, but we can pay attention to how our learners seem to be acquiring competence, what contents seem too difficult for them, what are the mistakes they produce and what kind of activities help them to develop their communicative competence more effectively.

7. CONCLUSION.

To conclude, any attempt to give a complete account on either L1 or L2 acquisition may be qualified as ambitious at least. In case of L1, we can probably conclude that human beings are endowed with some kind of neurological network which facilitates acquisition. However, in the case of L2, acquisition does not take place in the same situation. First, we already have a previous structure which may cause problems of transfer. Second, there is age and social circumstances playing a role. Therefore, theories on L2 focus more on what facilitates learning than on how it actually takes place. 

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

In order to write this topic, several references have been use, among which I would like to highlight:

- Bruner, J. (1966). Learning about Learning. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.

- Chomsky, N. (1972). Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar. Mouton: The Hague. 

- Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: OUP.

- Krashen, S.D. (1983). The Natural Approach. Oxford: Pergamon.

- Piaget, J. (1974). The Language and Thought of the Child. New York: New American Library. 

- Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics 10.3:209-231.

- Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge: CUP.

Besides, legal sources have also been used to justify the topic:

- LOMCE Organic Law 8/2013, of 9th of December to improve the educational quality.

- Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching and Assessment. Strasbourg.

- Royal Decree 1105/2014, of 26th of December, which establishes the basic curriculum of secondary compulsory education and bachillerato.

- Order ECD 489/2016, of 26th of May, which passes the curriculum of secondary education and allows its application in the schools of Aragon.