Sir Thomas Malory - Le Morte D'Arthur

Le Morte D’Arthur is most famous Arthurian narrative

• Thomas Malory wrote his narrative of Arthur in English prose in 1460s while in prison, completing it in 1469-70

• Malory’s tale offers important synthesis of all medieval traditions of Arthurian literature

  • Brings together earlier medieval tales about Arthur in several languages

  • Pluss adds one tale original to Malory

• Only one copy of Malory’s original narrative survives

  • Called “Winchester Manuscript” because it was found in city of Winchester

• But Malory’s tale had enormous influence on later tales of Arthur, some of which echo Malory’s language closely

• Malory’s narrative about Arthur’s life circulated widely through William Caxton’s printed edition in 1485, which was reprinted for centuries

• Problem: Caxton changed Malory’s text significantly

• Added new title based on French tale about King Arthur

  • Le Morte D’Arthur - incorrect French for The Death of Arthur (correct would’ve been La Mort d’Artus)

• Added new book and chapter divisions to Malory’s text

• Added preface

  • Calls Arthur England’s national hero, though he had been written about more in French than English

  • Depicts Arthur as member of Nine Worthies

  • Presents tale as instruction for those seeking to follow ideals of nobility

• For over 400 years, Caxton’s printed edition was the only version of Malory’s work known to most readers

• In 1934, medieval manuscript of Malory’s text was discovered in library of Winchester college

• Professional copy, but not luxury copy for wealthy readers → no illustrations

• Manuscript reveals that Malory wrote while in prison and completed text between March 1469 and March 1470

• Also reveals Malory organized narrative in 8 “books” or “tales” with statements at end of each book that give book’s title

• Malory called final book “The Death of Arthur”

• Conclusion also refers to “the whole book of King Arthur and of his noble knights of the Round Table”

  • Probably what Malory called his whole narrative, but Caxton’s title become better known, so it has been used by most people

• Malory names himself as Author at end of each book

  • Calls himself “Knight Prisoner” at end of first book and asks for prayers in later books

• Historical sources recorded several English knights named Thomas Malory in 15th C.

  • No historical sources mentions that any of these knights was an author

• Author Thomas Malory was probably knight born around 1415 to Warwickshire family who had an estate at Newbold Revel, as well as properties elsewhere

  • Medieval churches near Newbold Revel are still in use, but medieval manor house was torn down

• Le Morte D’Arthur shows Malory had ability to read English and French literature, as well as some Latin; He was not a scholar, professional writer, or author writing for noble patron

  • Educated people in 15th C. England needed to learn French and Latin

• Malory’s family not very wealthy or powerful, but was active in local politics and service to feudal overlord

  • Father was not knight, but married knight’s daughter

  • Father serves as sheriff, justice of peace, and member of Parliament for Warwickshire

• Thomas Malory inherited father’s small estates in 1433

• Thomas Malory married daughter of knight like his father and had 3 sons

• In 1436, Malory fought in “Hundred Years War” between England and France (1339-1445) over kingship of France

• Malory received knighthood in 1441, probably as reward for military service

• In 1445, Malory serves as member of Parliament for Warwickshire

  • Parliament often met in Westminster Palace (now London)

• In late 1440’s, Malory got caught up in conflict over right to be English king that led to civil war in 1450’s

  • “War of Roses” between Lancastrian and Yorkist descendants of earlier kings

  • Their feudal vassals were expected to support different sides in conflict, even when it escalated to arrests and executions

  • King Henry VI (Lancastrian) overthrown by Edward IV (Yorkist)

• By 1451, Malory had been arrested and imprisoned for crimes against his overlords enemies

  • Earl of Warwick began as supporter of Yorkists

• Malory was arrested 7 more times for attempted murder, breaking into an abbey, robbery, and rape (or abduction, not clearly stated); but he escaped from prison severa; times and was never convicted

  • Not clear how many crimes were politically motivated

• In 1468 Malory’s overlord Warwick switched to Lancastrian side and fled to France

• Yorkists considered Warwick’s vassals threats

• Malory was captured again and imprisoned in Tower of London

  • He was specifically excluded from Yorkist king’s pardons in 1468 and 1470

  • Yorkists also held overthrown king (Henry VI) in Tower of London

• Malory wrote his narrative about King Arthur in prison and explored kingship, faith, justice, and repentance

• Malory was released in 1470 when Warwick helped Lancastrian king retake throne

• Malory died in March 1471 and was buried in London church with royal connections

• Malory’s primary source was French collections of tales about King Arthur, Round Table, and Grail from 13th and 14th centuries

  • Malory often refers to source as “the French book”

• Malory added material from Arthurian literatures in English

• Malory added tale about Arthur’s war against forces of Roman Emperor (“The Noble Tax betwixt King Arthur and Lucius the Emperor of Rome”)

  • Based closely on English poem Morte Arthur from ca. 1400 (expansion of Arthur’s war with Romans and death in HKB)

• Malory’s integration of war account suggests he considered Arthur’s military leadership very important

• Use of English source also helped shape Malory’s depiction of Arthur as English hero, not British hero

• Also added new tale (“Tale of Sir Gareth”) about knighthood, faithful love, and family loyalties

The Tale of King Arthur

• First tale in Malory’s narrative establishes King Arthur as true king of England, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland

  • Depicts him as “noble conqueror” and hero of whole work

• Malory’s account of Arthur gives greater role to magic and miracles than we saw in HKB

  • Influenced by tales about Merlin and Lady of the Lake

  • Also influenced by French sources that transformed Celtic myth traditions in Christian miracles

    • French Arthurian collections thought to have been composed by monks who wanted to inspire greater religious faith among nobility

• Malory’s Arthur is complex hero, not saint or mythic hero whose downfall comes from external factors alone

  • Integration of multiple sources helps create more complex picture of Arthur as person and king

• Malory presents Arthur as king of English empire, not of ancient Britons

  • No references to protecting kingdom from invasion by pagan Saxons (ancestors of English)

  • Arthur does fight to unify kingdom, but only against other kings and knights who do not accept him as true king

  • Mirrors situations of English civil war

• Narrative lings Arthur to several different parts of island of Britain

  • Conceived at Tintagel in Cornwall, but taken by Merlin to be brought up by Sir Ector, who has property in England and Wales

  • Crowned as king in London (Norman capital), but also celebrates kingship at Caerleon in Wales

  • Text identifies Camelot as Winchester (capital of Anglo-Saxon England), which had Round Table

• Malory’s story of Arthur’s conception as a result of Uther’s passion for Igraine, wife of Duke of Cornwall, has important differences from HKB

  • Uther tries unsuccessfully to seduce Igraine, who asks duke to leave Uther’s London court; then Uther attacks duke’s castles, and secretly enters Tintagel; but duke dies 3 hours before Arthur is conceived

  • Before disguising Uther, Merlin makes Uther swear on Christian scripture to give him custody of Igraine’s son, whom Merlin names and has baptized before bringing him to be fostered by Sir Ector and his wife

• Arthur’s secret naming and youth as foster-son of Sir Ector complicate his road to kingship (makes him similar to Parzival)

  • Arthur does not know own identity, true parents, or three older half-sisters

    • Morgause (marries King Lot of Lothian and has five sons)

    • Elaine

• Merlin asks uther to name Arthur as his legitimate heir before death, but does not reveal where Arthur is (probably to protect him from Uther’s enemies)

  • Uther shown to have enemies from “The North” (not Saxons)

  • Many men wish to be king after Uther dies when Arthur is 2 years old

• Foster family childhood sets up need for proof of Arthur’s kingship

• Arthur’s kingship test seems to transform Celtic myth into Christian miracle

• Merlin asks Archbishop of Canterbury (not Dubricius) to call knights to church in London to pray for Christians revelation of new king

• Sword in iron anvil on square stone appears on Christmas outside of church with inscription about person able to draw sword being true king of England

• No knight able to draw sword, so tournament called for New years day

• Account of Arthur drawing sword hilights his attempt to help older brother who forgot sword, not conscious attempt to become king

• A bit different from known royal identity and courage, generosity and “inborn goodness” HKB says make Arthur admired

• Also sets up new rationale for appointing Sir Kay as seneschal (Arthur agrees because Ector requests it)

• Arthur performs test for proof of kingship twice on New Years Day, and then repeats it on four Christian holidays

  • Epiphany or Twelfth day of Christmas (January 6th), Candlemas (February 2), Easter (March or April), and Pentecost (May)

• Arthur is first knighted and then crowned by Archbishop of Canterbury in London on Pentecost, with coronation oath to uphold justice

• Then King Arthur defeats enemies in Scotland and Wales who deny kingship

• Holds feast in Caerleon on next Pentecost (like HKB), but some kings still refuse to support Arthur because they don’t believe he is Uther’s son

• Merlin’s role expands greatly beyond role in HKB: names Arthur, has him baptized, and arranged for Sir Ector and wife to raise Arthur

• Also acts as Arthur’s teacher by questioning him about choices and using disguises to help Arthur learn not to judge by appearances

• Helps Arthur defeat rebel kings by getting aid from King Ban of Benwick and King Bors of Gaul

• Helps Arthur get Excalibur from Lady of Lake (not from Avalon as in HKB)

  • Excalibur therefore different from sword in anvil on stone

• But Merlin cannot keep Arthur from making unwise choices, despite his advice

  • Arthur values Excalibur more than its scabbard (which has healing powers)

  • Marries Guinevere despite warnings she’ll fall in love with Lancelot

• King Arthur’s passion for women becomes important element of Malory’s depiction (change form HKB and Malory’s association with Arthur and Christ)

  • Arthurs passion for women has some parallels with Uther’s passion for Igraine

    • Important difference: Malory does not show Arthur using deception or force to have affairs

  • Before marrying Guinevere, Arthur has affair with Morgause (not knowing she is his half-sister)

    • Arthur does know Morgause is wife of vassal, King Lot, who attacks Arthur and is killed by King Pellinore

    • Affair produces illegitimate son Mordred

    • Arthur also has affair with Lady Lionors, which produces illegitimate son Borre who becomes round table knight

  • Arthur does not have affairs after marrying Guinevere

• Malory’s depiction of King Arthur is much more complex than in earlier tales

• Affair with half-sister causes both illegitimate son and vengeance chain

• After Merlin’s prophecy about Mordred destroying Arthur and his knights, Arthur orders “exposure” of babies born to noble parents on or near date of Mordred’s birth, to hide true intention of killing his own son

  • Arthur has children put out to sea in ship without sail or sailors, but Mordred survives shipwreck and is fostered

• Arthur here parallels King Herod in Christian Bible, who orders slaughter of baby boys in Bethlehem to remove Christ child as rival king

  • Commemorated by medieval Christians every year on December 28

• LMD later links killing children with monstrous giant of St. Michael’s Mount

• Prophecy of overthrow by son may reflect links between Arthur and Celtic solar myth in earlier tales

• But Merlin states that Mordred’s overthrow of Arthur will be God’s punishment for Arthur’s incestuous affair, so no longer Celtic myth

• King David’s affair with Bathsheba in Bible would also be known to Malory’s readers as precedent for passion as threat to kings rule and family heritage

• Merlin’s statement that God is displeased by Arthur’s affair echoed prophet Nathan’s announcement of God’s displeasure with King David

  • David repents, but son Absolom rebels against him and his killed

• But parallel between King Arthur and King David may also suggest hope for Arthur becoming great king, despite his faults

  • King David was considered ideal model for kings in Middle Ages

    • Chosen by God to rule Israel and depicted as brave warrior

• King David and King Arthur both depicted as members of “Nine Worthies”

  • “Honor Roll” of nine military heroes from classical, Jewish, and Christian cultures that first appeared in literature and visual arts in 14th C.

  • Arthur is first of three Christian “Worthies”

  • Mentioned by Caxton in prologue to his version of LMD

• Arthur’s rule also challenged by others, including step-sister Morgan le Fay, so Malory’s tale adds more internal and external challenges to Arthur

• Malory’s Morgan reverses her positive role in Parzival, which depicts her as wise maker of medicines that cured Gawan

• Morgan becomes great danger: she tries to kill Arthur several ways, including stealing Excalibur and offering her love to Sir Accolon, if he will kill King Arthur

• Sir Accolon says Morgan le Fay hates Arthur because he has most honor and power of anyone in their family

  • Possibly revenge for death of father and deception of mother, but could just be desire for her own power: plans to make Accolon king and marry him

• Need to temper passion with wisdom is presented as major challenge for all men and women, not just Arthur

  • “Lust” in LMD is not just sexual desire, but also greed, jealousy, and vengeance

• LMD also presents different details on Arthur’s relationship with Guinevere

• She is daughter of King Lodegreance of Camelard, who is loyal to Arthur

• Malory does not associate her with Roman heritage or being raised at court of Duke of Cornwall (like in HKB)

• She is described as beautiful and Arthur falls in love with her at first sight, but chooses marriage over affair

• Narrator claims Arthur loves Guinevere for rest of his life

• Tale does not discuss Guinevere’s feelings about marrying Arthur, which returns to more traditional depiction of noble marriages compared to Parzival

• Arthur chooses to marry Guinevere despite Merlin’s prophecy that she and Lancelot will love each other

  • Malory makes sure audience knows of later love affair even before marriage to Arthur takes place

  • Arthur’s knowledge of future affair complicates relationships with both

• Malory’s Gawain also becomes much more ambiguous character

  • Oldest son of Arthur’s sister Morgause and King Lot

  • Has 3 brothers, in addition to half brother Mordred

  • But no longer has earlier role of “best of knights” in younger generation

• Malory’s Gawain begins knighthood very badly

  • Refuses to give mercy to defeated knight, kills lady by accident, and plots to kill fellow Round Table knight out of jealous and vengeance

• His mistakes become more examples of widespread problem of untempered sexual passion, as well as jealousy and desire for revenge

  • Arthur’s affair with Morgause leads to King Lot’s desire for revenge; when he attacks Arthur, Pellinore kills him, setting of vengeance by Lot’s sons that eventually also kills their mother

  • Even Merlin develops lust for Nenive (Damsel of the Lake) that leads to his imprisonment by her, though he knows what will happen

  • Merlin’s imprisonment leaves Arthur more vulnerable to threats

• Important that Malory’s Arthur sees problems and takes active role in trying to encourage improvement in conduct of knights through establishment of Round Table fellowship

• Round Table itself is wedding gift from King Lodegreance, with 100 knights

  • New association of Round Table and knights with Arthur’s marriage to Guinevere suggests it could be seen as symbol of fertility or prosperity

  • Originally gift to Lodegreance from Uther

  • Seats 150 knights, so represents strong military force

  • Blessed by Archbishop of Canterbury, so Christian link

• Search for 50 additional knights begins after wedding

  • Account of knighting of Gawain and Tor explores questions of whether knighthood should be based on inherited social rank or noble actions

• “Siege Perilous” at Round Table reserved for most worthy knight (identity unknown at this point): dangerous for any other knights to sit in it

• King Arthur establishes oath for Round Table knights

  • Never commit murder or other crimes

  • Give mercy to those who ask for it

  • Never commit treason (disloyalty to king)

  • Always aid and protect women (so no assault)

  • Never fight for unjust causes, even if for love or material profit

• Arthur sets yearly renewal of oath on Christian holiday of Pentecost

  • Continues association of Arthur’s kingship and Pentecost (Whitsun)

  • Strongly suggests parallel between establishment of Round Table fellowship and founding of Christian Church

• Round Table oath establishes ideal against which all knights in LMD must be measured

  • Oath may be commentary on knighthood in Malory’s time

The Tale of Arthur and Lucius the Emperor of Rome

• Not found in French Tales about King Arthur

• Version of war between Britons and Romans first presented in HKB

• Malory used retelling of HKB account in English poem Morte Arthure

  • Depiction of Arthur’s defeat of Roman armies, interrupted by Mordred’s usurpation and Arthur’s return to Britain to defeat Mordred’s forces

  • Arthur kills Mordred in combat, but is wounded by Mordred

  • Arthur dies on island of Avalon and is then buried at Glastonbury Abbey, church that claimed to have Arthur’s tomb

• Morte Arthur also uses same alliteration as Old English epic poem Beowulf, so links Arthur to English traditions of heroism

• Malory maintains much alliteration from Morte Arthur in his prose narrative (sometimes borrowing whole passages word for word), so account of war sounds more “English”

• Differences between Malory’s account and source result from need to integrate account of war with French tales of Arthur and knights

  • Now early in Arthur’s kingship, so Mordred’s treachery postponed

  • Malory has Arthur crowned emperor by pope in Rome on Christmas day (just like Charlemagne in 800)

  • Arthur leaves kingdom in hands of Sir Baudwin, Sir Constantine, and Guinevere (not Mordred)

  • They remain faithful to Arthur and celebrate Arthur’s victorious return to England

  • No loss of key nights Kay, Bedivere, or Gawain

• Malory’s tale here presents Arthur at high point of his power

  • Celebrated as king of kings “with all the royalty of the world to wield forever” (what kings of England wanted but never achieved)

  • Arthur displays kingly leadership, individual military prowess, and wise rulership

Noble Tale of Sir Lancelot

• Based on French tales about Lancelot as greatest Round Table knights

  • One of longest parts of Malory’s work, but much shorter than French account

• Malory’s tale focuses on Lancelot’s feats of arms and personal relationships

  • Skips over account of Lancelot’s childhood as son of King Ban of Benwick who is brought up by Lady of the Lake

  • Malory’s account refers earlier to Lancelot as son of King Ban

• Malory’s interweaves tale about adventures by many Round Table knights

  • Knights elave King Arthur’s court individually or in small groups to prove themselves worthy of honor by meeting unforeseen challenges, than report to Arthur’s court

• Stories illustrate Lancelot’s use of superior military skills in defense of other knights, ladies, and ideals of knighthood

• Lancelot becomes model against whom people measure other knights

• Lancelot’s love for Guinevere is also important issue, but not focus of events

• Ambiguity of Lancelot’s relationship to queen becomes apparent from start

  • Tale opens with claim she held him in favor above other knights for his noble deeds, and he loved her above all ladies and achieved great deeds for her

    • Narrator also refers to Lancelot’s rescue of queen from fire, so readers know queen will be in different danger from KC

• Four queens who capture Lancelot and imprison him ast Castle Chariot know that he loves Guinevere, but he claims that “she is the truest lady unto her lord”

  • Lancelot escapes from imprisonment through help of daughter of King Bagdemagus (similar to KC)

• Malory adds passage in which Lancelot argues against marriage for knights, because they will not go to tournaments and win military glory

  • Claims he does not have “love affairs: which he associates with immoral knights who become unfortunate in battle because these knights displease God

  • Since Merlin warned Arthur about love between Lancelot and Guinevere, readers may wonder if his statement is true

• Lancelot’s defeat of Sit Tarquin becomes important episode

  • Tarquin is enemy of Round Table knights in general and Lancelot in particular

  • Tarquin is skilled fighter, but not good knight

    • Seeks to maim opponents to prevent return to battle

    • Does not show mercy

    • Imprisons defeated knights and lets injured knights die

• Lancelot’s defeat of Sir Tarquin leads Gawain’s brother, Sir Gaheris, to proclaim Lancelot “best knight in the world”

• Malory’s tale emphasizes that Lancelot defends all women, not just Guinevere

• Lancelot’s rescue of damsel from Sir Peris de Forest Savage underscores that no man can assault women and still be considered true knight

  • Defense of women part of Round Table oath

• Lancelot continues to defeat “destroyers of knights” and “destroyers of women”

• Tale offers comparison with other knight’s failure to save lady from murder by husband

  • Arthur gives Guinevere authority to punish knight

  • Knight must keep lady’s dead body with him at all times on pilgrimage to Rome as penance (opposite of Sigune’s choice to care for body of beloved)

• Conclusion of “Table of Sir Lancelot”

  • Round table knights return to Arthur’s court at Pentecost

  • Celebration of Lancelot’s victories integrated with yearly renewal of oath to uphold Round Table ideal of knighthood

  • Echoes use of pentecost as celebration of Arthur’s kingship in earlier tales

    • Annual cycle of solar myth replaced by Christian structure

    • Lancelot could return as challenger to King Arthur, but takes role as supporter of Round Table fellowship

  • Tale presents Arthur as strong king, but readers may worry about stability of Arthur’s kingship

    • Not all knights live up to Round Table ideal, even if Lancelot seems to do so at this point

The Sangrail

Malory takes name “Sangrail” from French Saint Graal (Holy Grail)

• Malory begins background for quest for Sangrail in “Tale of Sir Tristram”

• Introduces two Sangrail knights: Percival de Gales and Galahad

• Percival based on French Perceval le Gallois (Percival the Welshman)

  • Similar to Wolfram’s associations of Parzival with Wales through his mother

• Malory’s depiction of Percival differs from Wolfram’s Parzival in many ways

  • Father is King Pellinore, who was killed by Arthur’s nephews

  • Neither parent is part of Grail community

  • Older brothers are Sir Tor, Sir Lamorak, Sir Dornar, and Sir Angloval

  • Sir Agloval brings Percival to Camelot to be knighted by King Arthur

• Percival’s special role is foretold by damsel at Arthur’s court, as in Parzival

  • She speaks for first time and welcomes Percival as “noble knight and God’s knight” (new formulation)

  • But Sir Kay does not mistreat her, as Keie did Lady Cunneware in Parzival

  • She also takes Percival to seat at her right of Siege of Perilous at Round Table

• Tale of Sir Tristram” does not follow Sir Percival’s adventures until after Sir Galahad is introduced in mysterious prophecy

  • Hermit comes to Arthur’s court on Pentecost

  • Announces that knight who will sit in Siege Perilous will be conceived that year, but does not reveal knights name

  • Also announces that this knight will “win the Sangrail”

• Malory introduces Galahad in terms of replacing Lancelot as best knight in world and winning Sangrail

• LMD depicts Sangrail as gold cup that Christ used at meal with his followers on night before his crucifixion

• Also cup that Joseph of Arimathea used to collect Christ’s blood during crucifixion

• Not based on passages in Christian Bible

  • No reference to gold cup in Bible account of Christ’s meal with disciples or to catch blood at crucifixion

  • Bible only says Joseph of Arimathea donated tomb to bury Christ’s body after crucifixion

• Information about Sangrail based on medieval legends

• Medieval artists began to show Joseph of Arimathea at Christ’s crucifixion

  • Uses bowl (gradalis) or large cup

• Malory uses French tales about Holy Grail and Joseph of Arimathea that got combined with tales about King Arthur and his knights

• Malory’s “Noble Tale of the Sangrail” states that Joseph of Arimathea collected Christs blood in Sangrail

• Joseph first took Sangrail from Jerusalem to city of Sarras in Middle East

• Then brought Sangrail to Britain and converted Britons to Christianity

• Descendents of Joseph in Britain served Sangrail until Arthur’s time

  • Malory’s account does not mention invasion of non-Christian English

• Malory also follows French sources in making Lancelot father of Galahad

• LMD depicts Lancelot as imperfect knight who fathers perfect knight, who will restore health to wounded king (Roi Pêcheur)

  • Account reveals Lancelot was baptized “Galahad Lancelot”, but lost full name when he lost purity, so pure son takes up father’s lost name

• Sangrail appears at castle of King Pelles, who is descendant of Joseph of Arimathea

  • Food desired by individuals appears on table before Sangrail enters room

    • Similar to depiction of Gral providing food at Munsalvaesche in Parzival

• When Lancelot visits castle, King Pelles tricks Lancelot into sleeping with daughter, Princess Elaine, in order to conceive Galahad

  • Elaine depicted as willing participant in plan

  • Lancelot told that “queen” wishes him to join her in bed at other castle, so he goes there, is given wine, and thinks he sleeps with Guinevere

• Guinevere’s jealousy over Lancelot’s relationship with Elaine causes queen to reject him, which leads him to go mad in forest until he is healed by Sungrail

• Percival becomes first example of new spiritual knighthood (“God’s knight”)

• RT knights Ector de Maris and Percival wound each other so badly in battle they expect to die and cannot reach priest for forgiveness of their sins

  • Percival pays for aid from Christ, and Sangrail appears and heals them

  • Only Percival can see Sangrail because he is virgin (“perfect maiden’)

• LMD describes Percival here as “one of the best knights of the world”

  • Differs from older generation of knights who competed for title of ‘best knight of the world’ because they fought to win love from lady

    • Lancelot and Tristram ultimately fail to fulfill RT ideal because of their overpowering love for queens

    • Lancelot himself depicted passionate love for lady (paramour) as distraction from knight’s faithful service to God

    • Contrasts with harmony of love for lady and love for God in Parzival

The Noble Tale of the Sangrail

• Pentecost opening at Arthur’s court both echoes and revises earlier celebrations of Arthurian ideal of knighthood in Malory’s tale

• Preparations for annual reunion of Round Table knights at Camelot interrupted by arrival of lady on day before pentecost

  • She takes Lancelot to abbey of nuns in order to knight his 15 year old son Galahad there, not at Arthur’s court

    • Nun explains that they, not Pelles, have raised Galahad

    • Suggests potential for women to provide guidance for new spiritual ideal of knighthood

  • Lancelot knights son on Pentecost, but returns to Camelot without him

• Gold letters also miraculously appear on Siege Perilous that reveal date for appearance of new “best knight in the world” and link him to Christ

  • Siege Perilous will be filled 454 winters after Christ’s crucifixion (i.e. in year 487, according to Christian tradition)

• Sword with jeweled handle then appears in red marble rock floating in river by Camelot with gold letters saying it belongs to ‘best knight of the world’

  • Tale presents this as traditional ‘marvel’ that must take place before King Arthur may begin feast on holiday

  • Arthur asks RT knights to attempt to pull sword from rock, but knights are reluctant

  • Arthur asks Lancelot to try, but he refuses and predicts retribution if anyone unworthy of title triest to take sword

  • Arthur commands Gawain and Percival to try, but they fail

• Malory’s first tale revealed that Merlin put sword into stone, and narrator explains that Galahad would pull it out

• Test echosed revelation of Arthur’s true identity as king of England by pulling sword out of anvil on stone outside London church

  • New sword test seems to present Galahad as new ‘king’

• Galahad becomes new Christian version of Red Knight from Celtic Myth

  • wears red armor

  • Descended from family of Joseph of Arimathea through mother and father

  • Great-grandson of wounded king (King Pellam)

  • Galahad recognizes sword in red stone as sword he needs to heal Pellam

• Arrival of Galahad at Arthur’s court followed by appearance of Sangrail

  • Tale described light of Holy Spirit shining on Round Table knights, which echoes Christian BIble account of first Pentecost

  • Sangrail provides whatever food and drink each knight loves best, but is only visible to Galahad and Percival

• Gawain declares he will quest to see Sangrail, and all other RT knights join in

• Nacien told Arthur that Grail appearances honors him more than any other king in Britain, but Arthur recognizes potential fro Grail quest to change Round Table fellowship forever, since some knights will not return

• Quest for Sangrail brings new tests and new ideals for RT knights

  • Feats of new heroes indirectly critique old heroes

  • Need for spiritual strength, not physical strength

  • Also removes link between knighthood and inspiration by love for lady

  • Focus on sexual purity for men that reflects new Christian teachings

• Christian hermits have extensive role in Sangrail quest as advisors

  • Hermits are often knights who have withdrawn from combat to focus on spiritual study and prayer (like Trevrizent in Parzival)

  • Nacien the Hermit plays major role as prophet and advisor

• Tale also highlights new importance of priests because of rituals they controlled for restoring moral purity for knights before and during quest

  • Baptism, marriage, Holy Communion, confession, penance, and absolution (forgiveness) gave religious authorities great power over secular people

• Knight’s visions and dreams become important part of new “spiritual vision” needed for Sangrail quest, and spiritual advisors help knights with ‘reading’ them

• Sangrail quest also becomes new king of experience for readers of Arthurian narratives

  • Readers need to learn how to interpret events in narrative as symbols of Christian religious teachings

• Quest narrative presents Galahad as new ‘best knight of the world’

  • Takes title ‘Knight of Red Cross’ from shield presented by White Knight

    • White shield with red cross mad with blood of Joseph of Arimathea

    • Also heraldic symbol of Templar Knights of Crusades

  • Takes role of liberator of Castle of Maidens, where he is led by voice after prayer

  • Fights to defeat evil, not to win love of lady or serve Arthur

  • Hermit described Galahad’s victories as similar to Christ’s acts

• Gawain’s rejection of spiritual advice reveals his distance from new ideal

  • Hermit advises Gawain to do penance for sinful acts, but Gawain refuses and says knights already suffer hardship during adventures

• Gawain’s view contrasts with Lancelot’s first adventures on Sangrail quest, which leads him to frustration, but also instruction and repentance

• After being unable to enter church, Lancelot falls asleep and has vision of Sangrail whaling knight

• Healed knight takes Lancelots horse, helmet, and sword while Lancelot sleeps

• Voice chastises Lancelot and exiles him from holy places

• But Lancelot finds hermit who explains vision and voice

• Lancelot confesses that he has been fighting for love of queen and earthly glory, instead of fighting for love for God

• Hermit forgives Lancelot’s error and advises him to ‘pursue knighthood’

  • Suggest knights who fail sangerail quest do not follow true knighthood

• Percival’s experiences on Sangrail quest include echoes of earlier versions of Percival’s story, but now with complete emphasis on his spiritual education

• Percival begins quest by consulting recluse, who turns out to be his aunt and former Queen of Waste Lands

  • Aunts role similar to Sigune’s in Parzival

  • Percival learns of mother’s death from aunt

  • Aunt also reveals that Galahad chieves his feats by miracle

• Percival has already demonstrated his ability to follow spiritual ideal of knighthood and now seeks fellowship with Galahad

• Aunt sends Percival to Castle Carbonek for more information about Galahad

• At Carbonek, Percival finds wounded king, but does not take role of healer, Galahad will

• Percival’s experiences also suggest that new ideal of knighthood differs from old ideal based on military horsemanship

  • Horse Percival gets from damsel turns out to be demon

• Percival also has visions that test and educate him

  • visions lead him to pray for divine protection and guidance

• Priest on ship then gives Percival religious instruction

• Percival is tempted to have sexual relationship with beautiful lady, but cross on his sword handle reminds him of his dedication to sexual purity

• Percival then pierces his thigh with his sword to punish his body and show his spiritual strength over temptation by worldly desires

• “Noble Tale of Sangreal” refocuses Malory’s definition of knightly ideal

  • Arthurian oath of RT knights focused on earthly justct

  • Sangrail knighthood focuses on religious ideals

• Tale suggests continued influence of orders of Crusader knights

  • Templar Knights and Hospitaller Knights took vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, like monks

  • Templars vowed to protect temple of Solomon and Hospitallers vowed to care for Pilgrims, but most had to leave Jerusalem in 1187

  • Templars wore red cross on white background as their heraldic symbols

  • Templars built church in london that claimed to have vial of Christ’s blood

  • One of Malory’s uncles served as head of English Hospitaller Knights

• But Malory does not call Sangrail knights Templars, as Wolfram did

• Quest for Sangrail makes Christian faith central to new ideal of knighthood

• Sir Gawain and Sir Ector become prime examples of failure by most Round Table knights to achieve ideal knighthood needed for Grail quest

• First, Gawain rejects hermits advice to do penance for religious error

• VIsion of bridle and candle seen by Gawain and Ector symbolizes discipline and enlightenment needed for spiritual ideal of knighthood

• Nacien tells Gawain and Ector they will fail to see Sangrail because they have not upheld spiritual ideals

  • Charity (selflessness), abstinence (self-control), and truth

• Gawain continues to be associated with murder, which violates RT oath

  • While on Sangrail quest, Gawain kills cousin and fellow RT knight, Sir Uwain (Yvain), without just cause

• But Grail quest also shows potential of some RT knights to achieve spiritual ideal of knighthood, so no conflict between RT oath and spiritual knighthood

• Gawain’s vision of 150 black bulls and white bulls suggest most RT knights no longer follow moral goals behind round table oath

  • Nacien says black bulls in vision are weak because they choose to wander, while three white bulls choose to eat in meadow of patience and humility

    • “Wander” means “leave the path” or “go astray” (Latin verb errare)

    • “Knight errant” is supposed to wander physically, but not morally

  • Nacien reveals future of Grail knights with prophecy that only one out of three white bulls will return to celebrate RT fellowship

• Nacienc’s explanation of Gawain’s vision of bulls suggests Arthur’s oath for RT knights could have been spiritual idea for all 150 knights, but did not specify religious faith

• Gawain’s Grail quest ends when he is wounded by Galahad

  • Depicted as punishment for trying to pull sword for “best knight in the world” out of floating stone (though he was acting on Arthur’s command)

• Sir Bors de Ganis provides important comparison with RT knights who don’t complete Grail quest, as well as with Galahad and Percival

  • Bors shows that achieving full vision of Grail doesn’t require human perfection, just willingness to reform

• Nacien describes Bors as Grail knight with “flaw” that has been forgiven

  • Identifies Bors as white bull with black spot in vision seen by Gawain

  • Nacien explains that Bors had one sexual relationship outside of marriage, but he confessed his error, done penance, and has become chaste, so he is able to see Holy Grail

  • Other two Grail knights (Percival and Galahad) are virgins

• Hermit depicts Bors as “stable” and not corrupted by “fleshly lust” (desire for material things instead of spiritual goals, not just sexual desire)

• Bors differs from Lancelot, who has had long-term affair with Guinevere, for which he didn’t repent until his confession during quest to see Holy Grail

  • Lancelot still has to complete penitential acts to receive forgiveness

• Bors follows instruction form Hermit, unlike Gawain

  • Hermin explains that no one can win vision of Holy Grail except by personal purity, or by confession errors and receiving forgiveness

  • Bors takes on penance of eating only bread and water until he has won sight of Holy Grail, and Bors keeps oath, despite offers of courtly food

• Bors has series of visions with Christian symbols (ex lilly for purity)

• His greatest challenge comes when he must choose whether to defend lady from assault or rescue his brother Sir Lionel from capture by evil knights

  • Bors prays to God to protect his brother and then saves lady

• Priest and ady who later tempt Bors turn out to be demons who disappear when he makes sign of cross (like Percivals demon horse)

• Monk explains adventures and visons to Bors and claims Bors shows himself to be a “true servant of Chrsit and a true kngiht”

  • Echoes damsel’s description of Percival when he joined RT: “noble knight and God’s knight”

• Reunion of Bors and Lionel allows Malory to compare two knights

  • Lionel refuses to forgive Bors for leaving him to rescue lady, and Lionel attacks Bors, but Bors refuses to fight against his brother

  • Narrator states that devil entered LIonel to make him try to kill his brother

  • When hermit and other RT knight try to prevent Lionel from killing Bors, Lionel kills them both

    • Lionel thus violates RT oath 3 times

• Bors finally fights Lionel in self-defense, but voice from heaven prevents Bors from killing his brother

  • Similar to divine intervention when Parzival is (unknowingly) about to kill his brother

• Bors asks Lionel to forgive him for wounding him, and Lionel does

• Voice then tells Bors to join Percival on ship waiting at seacoast

• Reunion of Galahad, Bors, and Percival reveals identity as true Grail knights

• Galahad is brought to ship by Percival’s sister, who is also virgin

  • Echo of Galahad’s earlier education by nuns

  • Participation of Percival’s sister in Grail quest suggests Malory believes that women as well as men are capable of attaining spiritual goals

• All four brought to new ship with magical bed and sword

  • Letters on ship identify it as symbol of faith

• Sword has letters saying it belongs to King David and now awaits “best knight in the world”

  • Percival’s sister explains that King Pelles was wounded through thighs with spear because he tried to take sword from ship without being worthy of it

  • Version of wounded king (Fisher King), but Malory replaces Celtic myth with Christian meaning and healing by Galahad, rather than Percival

• Letter tied to bed and ship to Garden of Eden, but details from Christian legends, not Bible

  • Bed made from wood from tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil in Garden of Eden

  • Bed and ship made by King Solomon and his wife

  • Solomon’s wife prophesied that virgin who is daughter of king and queen must make new belt for sword

• Percival’s sister takes belt she made with her own hair and fastens sword onto Galahad, as if she were completing his knighting ceremony

  • Galahad declares he will be her knight for all his life

  • Suggests that chaste knightly service to lady is consistent with service to God

    • Similar to link of faithful love and service to Gral in Parzival

• Three Grail Knights then have military battles on land

• Galahad shows humility and faith by stating their defeat of evil knights comes from God’s power, rather than their own skill or courage

• Percival’s sister dies after she generously gives her blood to save sick lady

  • Her defeat of an evil custom suggests she is active member of Grail quest, like Grail knights, even though she cannot fight with military weapons

  • She asks Percival to put her body on ship and bury it at Sarras, where they will take Grail and where he and Galahad will also be buried

• Lancelot and Galahad then reunite on ship with body of Perciva'’s sister

  • Father and son spend six months together in religious worship and conversation

  • Similar to Sigune’s holy life with body of her beloved knight who died

• After Galahad leaves him, Lancelot prays for vision of Sangrail

  • Reminder that Lancelot lost original name and role as Grail knight because of his passionate love for Guinevere and pursuit of earthly glory

• Lancelot receives partial vision of Grail at Castle Carbonek

  • Grail described as holding physical body and blood of Christ in ritual of Holy Communion (Malory follows official Roman Catholic teaching)

  • Priest seems to strain under weight of holding up body of Christ in ritual brad to show congregation in Communion ritual

  • Lancelot tries to enter church to help priest, but is struck unconscious for entering space with Grail

    • Lancelot misinterprets spiritual struggle as physical struggle

• Hermit helps Lancelot understand his experience when he wakes up

  • Had 24 days of unconsciousness due to his 24 years of desire for queen

  • As sign of repentance, Lancelot agrees to wear his shirt made of scratchy horse hair under his courtly clothing where he returns to Camelot

  • Tale also depicts Lancelot’s mourning for death of Elaine as sign of his true repentance for love of queen

• Galahad then takes role of restorer or healer that Percival had in earlier tales, but Christianized

• Galahad meets with King Mordrains (another wounded king)

  • Mordrains calls Galahad “true knight and servant of Christ”

    • Similar to earlier description of Percival and Bors

  • Mordrains also emphasizes Galahad’s purity as virgin and compares red armor to fire of Holy Spirit that makes him feel reborn

• Galahad also “heals” boiling well and burning tomb through his moral purity

• Galahad then reunites with Percival and Bors at Castle Carbonek, home of Galahad’s grandfather, King Pelles

• Another wounded king (King Pellam) awaits at Castle Carbonek to be healed by great-grandson Galahad

• Finally, Grail knights witness full Holy Grail ceremony at Castle Carbonek

• Galahad, Bors, and Percival are joined by other Grail knights from Gaul, Ireland, and Denmark (so RT knights are not only Grail knights)

• Final goal of Grail quest is receiving holy communion directly from Christ

  • First, Joseph of Arimathea comes from heaven with angels and acts as priest for Holy Communion

  • Bleeding spear from crucifixion of Christ adds Christs blood to Grail (different from bleeding spear in Parzival)

  • Then Christ himself comes out of Grail and gives knights his body and blood in form of Holy Communion

    • Food from Grail here combines physical and spiritual food

• Tale focuses on presence of Christ’s body and blood in Grail reflects concern of Roman Catholic leaders In Malory’s time that Christians accept official teaching about Holy COmmunion

  • “Transubstantiation” becomes official teaching of Roman Catholic Church in 1215 (fourth lateran council)

    • Belief that bread and wine of Holy Communion change completely into body and blood of Christ during priests ritual

  • Same council required confession of sins to male members of clergy and acts of penance to receive forgiveness of sins before communion

  • Transubstantiation not accepted by all Christians, even in Middle Ages (became issue in Protestant Reformation)

  • Those who did not accept official teaching were accused of heresy by Roman Catholic clergy and could be imprisoned or executed

• Malory’s tale reflects official Roman Catholic teaching about confession and Holy Communion, probably to show his religious devotion while in prison, in hope of receiving help from Christian clergy to receive pardon from king

• Galahad, Percival, and Bors bring Grail to Sarras in Middle East

  • Christ tells Galahad Grail should leave Britain, where it no longer served

• At Sarras, they find ship with body of Percival’s sister, which they bury

• Muslim kings of Sarras imprisons them but Grail feeds them until king dies

• People then choose Galahad as king of Saras and he builds sharing for Grail

• Before he dies, Galahad gives Bors message to take back to Lancelot “Remember of this world unstable”

• Son of Joseph of Arimathea appears and takes Galahad’s soiul to heaven

• Heavenly a

• Return of Bors suggests more RT knights might have become Grail knights, if they did penance for their errors and then followed spiritual values

• King Arthur has Bors and Lancelot vive accounts of their Grail quests, which scholars write down in “great books” kept at church in city of Salisbury

• Bors then gives Lancelot message from Galahad

  • “Galahad prayed you to remember of this unsure world”

  • Untrustworthiness or instability of materia; world and its joys is theme that links many parts of Malory’s narrative

  • Reflects idea of human success being controlled by Lady Fortune, who turns her wheel to bring people up or down

• After Grail quest, “The Tale of Sir Lancelot and Queen Guinevere” shows how Lancelot returns to affair with queen, and other RT knights also cause problems for King Arthur

  • tale presents Lancelot as example of how difficult it is for human beings to live up to ideals of conduct, despite good intentions

• Tale comes right after account of Grail quest clarified religious aspects of oath taken by RT knights of pentecost

  • Arthurian ideal of knighthood included fighting for just causes and not committing crimes, but did not specify religious aspects of knightly ideal

    • Grail quest stressed not breaking Roman Catholic religious laws and fighting for heavenly glory, rather than earthly glory

    • Arthurian ideal for knights included fighting to defend women from attack

      • Grail quest stressed ideal of sexual chastity

  • Grail quest showed that RT link with Pentecost only truly worked if Arthurian ideal of knighthood was Christian ideal

• Success of RT knights in completing Grail quest suggested that RT ideal had potential to be Christian ideal, and Bors returned to Camelot

• Lancelot described high moral standard for knight’s relationships with women, in “Tale of Lancelot” but he did not follow his own standards

• “Tale of Lancelot and Guinevere” shows that Lancelot is also unable to live up to reforms he began on Grail quest: sexual chastity and fighting in service to God

• He is not able to follow Galahad’s advice to remember that the world is unstable

• Lancelot and Arthur remain complex figures in Malory’s account: flawed human beings who still achieve great things

• Tale shows that Arthur and Lancelot have less more instability than other knights (minus Bors)

• But instability they share with other human beings is enough to make Arthur’s kingship unstable (Winchester RT)

• Shows Arthur having increasing trouble holding RT knights to ideals embodied in oath they take

• Tale repeatedly emphasizes tensions between people’s public and private roles

  • Lancelot’s faithfulness to God and King Arthur comes into conflict with his faithfulness to Queen Guinevere

  • Guinevere’s roles as queen and Lancelot’s courtly lady conflict: she gets jealous when Lancelot fights to defend other women, which is part of RT oath

    • She exiles him from court with leaves her and Arthur without RT best fighter

  • Arthur also faces conflict between roles as husband, uncle, and king who took oath to uphold justice in his kingdom

• Offers series of episodes in which guilt becomes issue

• Problems arise in part because Arthur cannot control private actions of his knights or wife

• First, Guinevere is charged with murder and treason by SIr Mador after his cousin Sir Patrise dies from eating poisoned apple at dinner she hold for RT knights

• Readers know that Guinevere is innocent of this murder

  • Narrator explains that Sir Pinel poisoned apple to kill Sir Gawain

  • Pinel saw this as way to get revenge against Gawain for murder of Sir Lamorak

    • Gawain and his brothers murdered Sir Lamorak, because they thought his father had murdered their father and Lamorek had affair with their mother

    • Arthur exiled Gaheris for murdering his mother, but not other nephews

• Arthur is not allowed to defend queen in judicial combat, because he must take role of impartial judge, so she needs another champion to defend her

• Lancelot is not there to defend Guinevere in judicial combat because she exiled him, so she asks Bors

• Bors contacts Lancelot, who arrives in disguise to defend Guinevere

• After battle, Lancelot reveals himself and explains that he served both Arthur and Guinevere

• But Lancelot ads troubling statement: says he promises to be queen’s knight in right or wrong

  • Conflict with RT oath to fight only for just causes

• Tournament at Ascolat offers another example of conflict between public and private roles

  • Lancelot decides to fight against RT knights in disguise, after Guinevere scolds him for not leaving with other knights to fight in tournament

• Decision conflicts with his promise of service to Arthur and endangers Lancelot’s relatives, since they might try to fight against him

• Elaine, Fair Maid of Ascolat, falls in love with Lancelot while he secretly stays at her family’s home during tournament

  • Lancelot rejects Elaine’s love out of faithfulness to Guinevere

• Elaine’s unrequited love for Lancelot causes her to die

  • Narrator indicates her love for Lancelot began well but became self-destructive obsession

• Elaine’s body is sent to Camelot on ship, which sets up parallel with Percival’s sister

• Irony in Guenivere saying Lancelot should have shown compassion to Elaine

• Narrator then offers direct commentary on how virtuos love between men and women differs from “unstable” love

• Narrator argues that men and women have virtuous love when they love God first and then each other faithfully

  • Similarly to Trevrizent’s instructions to Parzival

• Narrator states that now “there is no stability”, only desire and unfaithfulness

• Malory’s tale does not seem to show Lancelot and Guinevere demonstrating this virtuous type of love

• Nevertheless, narrator states here that “Guinevere was a true lover and therefor she had a good end” (hard to understand at this point in tale!)

  • Parallels Nacien’s prophecy that Lancelot will end his life as holy man

• Passage becomes bridge to account of Guinevere’s abduction by Meliagaunt

  • Episode now becomes one of three post-Grail situations in which Lancelot rescues Guinevere from punishment for treason

• Malory’s account changes Chretien’s Knight of the Cart in many ways

• Challenge to King Arthur does not come from kingdom where his people are captive, but from knight who wants queen for himself

• Abduction occurs at May Day picnic, when queen chooses to leave Camelot with ten unarmed knights (no demand for combat by Sir Kay)

• Lancelot’s identity known all along, and he crosses Thames River on Horseback (no sword bridge)

• Lancelot demands to get into criminal’s cart because Meliagaunt’s men have killed his horse, and his ride in cart becomes more of a joke than dishonor

• Meliagaunt pleads for mercy from Guinevere, so there is no first battle

• Guinevere does not refuse to recognize Lancelot, so he does not go mad or get kidnapped, and he has slept with queen before, so night with queen is not first reward

• Lancelot’s defense of Guinevere in judicial combat has new significance in Malory’s tale because it comes after readers know Lancelot repented for affair and was going to reform

• “Tale of Lancelot and Guinevere” ends with healing of Sir Urry

• Healing of wounded knight becomes another test for “best knight in the world'“ but also echoes roles of Grail and Galahad in healing

  • Pentecost setting gives link with past celebrations of RT knighthood

• Arthur’s willingness to lead knights in trying to heal Sir Urry also echoes his earlier role as active leader of RT; but Arthur fails in his attempt

• List of knights also try to heal Sir Urry to remind readers of events in earlier tales, including RT successes and failures

  • List includes not only RT knights who fail to heal Sir Urry, but also knights who are missing because of Grail quest (Sir Percival and Sir Galahad) and because of murder (Sir Lamorak and Sir Tristram)

• Lancelot succeeds in healing Sir Urry through humility and faith in God, but narrator says he weeps as if he were a child who had been beaten (perhaps he remembers his failure to live up to his original potential as Lancelot Galahad)

• Tale ends in celebration, but narrator points out hatred that two of Arthur’s nephews (Agravain and Mordred) hold against Lancelot and Guinevere

  • Hate based on jealousy of Lancelot, not defense of their uncle and king

• “The Death of Arthur” presentes King’s death as culmination of series of events that resonate with themes Malory’s text has developed in unique manner

• In Malory’s tale, accusation that Lancelot and Guinevere have committed treason is presented as actual treason by Mordred and Agravain

  • Mordred and Agravain disguise their challenge to Arthur’s kingship as defense of Arthur against treason by Lancelot and Guinevere

  • Real goal of Mordred and Agravain to remove Lancelot as defense for Arthur and Guinevere is so clear, even Gawain and Gaheris agree with brother Gareth that they won’t join their brothers plot

• Setting of tales opening in month of may becomes ironic

  • May include Pentecost, so time for celebrating RT ideal of knighthood, and Pentecost was when Grail appeared at Camelot

  • But May Day was also setting of Meliagaunts treachery of previous tale

• Arthur tries to maintain unity of RT by protecting Lancelot from charge of treason, based on Lancelot’s service to him and queen in past

  • Distinguishes between private infidelity and public treason

  • Argues Lancelot's loyal service outweighs his private affair with queen

• Tale of Sir Tristram contrasted King Arthur good treatment of Lancelot and King Mark’s bad treatment of Tristram (Nephew loved by Mark’s queen)

  • Mark had Tristram killed, despite Arthur commanding Mark not to hur thim

• Arthur makes charge of treason against Lancelot possible only with proof

  • Arthur also raises question of whether Lancelot’s fighting strength will serve as his defense against his charge of treason

• Agravain and Mordred break knightly rules by laying trap to catch Lancelot and by attacking with other knights while he is unarmed

• Lancelot offers to fight in judicial combat if knights allow him to leave Guineveres chambers unharmed, but Agravain and Mordred refuse

  • Falsely acclaim Arthur said they can kill Lancelot if they caught him

• Lancelot promises to rescue Guinevere, if she faces danger

  • Says that if he dies, one of his relatives or a knight he has helped will help her in his place

• Lancelot kills Agravain and twelve other RT knights, but Mordred survives

• Lancelot asks Bors to help find out which knights will fight on his side if there is combat

  • Bors finds over 80 knights who agrees to fight for Lancelot

• Division of knights based not just on choice between Lancelot and Arthur, but choice to fight Arthur for failing to protect Lamorak and Tristram

  • Arthur’s inability to prevent vengeance by. others lead to own destruction

  • But Gareth now sides with his brother Gawain and Arthur against Lancelot

• Lancelot’s belief Arthur must have sent Mordred and Agravain to kill him shows growing distrust of king

  • Reads Arthur as if he were King Mark, but Bors argues Arthur is different

• Even after death of Agravain, Arthur wants to forgive Lancelot and Guinevere, but must act as just ruler

  • Arthur points out that relationship of might and right is problematic

  • Says Lancelot has relied on physical strength to defeat knights who accused queen before, so doesn’t let him again

• Arthur reluctantly accepts deaths of RT knights as evidence of Lancelot, and Guinevere’s treason and punishment for treason is death, even for queen

• Conflicts of loyalty reveal difficulty and tragedy of choices on both sides

• Gawain’s works for peace between Arthur and Lancelot until Lancelot kills Gawain’s brothers Gareth and Gaheris during rescue of queen

• Arthur laments loss of RT knights more than loss of queen

• Narrator then depicts Arthur and Gawain as seeking vengeance in declaring war on Lancelot at his castle Joyous Gard, rather than allowing judicial battle

• Malory’s account of Arthur’s life presents multiple causes for his downfall

• Ambush attack against Lancelot splits RT knights

• Arthurs insistence on execusting queen leads to death of Gareth and Gaheris

• Gawain’s desire to avenge Gareth’s death by waging war against Lancelot takes Arthur and loyal RT knights out of England

• When Mordred claims throne during Arthur’s war with Lancelot, Arthur only has part of RT knights left to fight against Mordred’s forces

• Merlin’s prophecy about Mordred bringing Arthur’s downfall said it would happen because Arthur’s incest with half-sister displeased God

  • Instead of repenting for his mistake like King David, Arthur had all young children born in May put in ship to die at sea

• Malory therefor gives Arthur significant responsibility for own downfall, despite his achievements

• Yet Malory depicts Mordred as clearly evil knight who murders good knights and secretly plots to take his father’s throne and wife

• Lancelot tries to resolve conflict with Arthur by following Pope’s order to return Guinevere to her husband

  • But Lancelot sounds foolish trying to claim she has been faithful to Arthur

• Lancelot counters charges of his treason against King Arthur with record of his loyal service to both Arthur and Guinevere

  • Offers to do penance for any mistakes he made during his service to King Arthur, but Arthur banishes him from England

• Lancelot’s statement before going into exile points out irony of having received both honor and dishonor in Arthur’s king (“noblest Christian realm'“)

  • Refers to misfortune, mutability, and instability in human history, even for heroes ike Hector of Troy and Alexander the Great (2 of ‘nine worthies’)

  • Comments remind readers of Arthur’s role as first Christian member of nine worthies, as well as “Wheel of Fortune”

• Malory’s own imprisonment because of English civil war provides new context for his version of Lancelot’s speech

• Malory’s final tale echoes Celtic solar myth in several ways, but ultimately follows Christian themes instead

• Lancelot might seem to take role of rival to old sun god, since he seems to take role of “stealing” Arthur’s queen

  • Lancelot rescues Guinevere from execution that Arthur ordered

• Lancelot does not attack King Arthur to try and take his throne

  • Refused to fight Arthur and rescues him from death during attack on Joyous Gard, so he seems to take role of sun god’s restores

• Depicts Gawain with trais similar to Celtic sun god

  • During individual combat against Lancelot, Gawain strengths grows until noon and then diminished like suns daily cycle

  • But narrator claims Gawain received this power from “holy man” so gives Christian significance

• Gawain does not take role of restorer who heals old sun god in Celtic myth

  • Gawain pushes Arthur to wage war on Lancelot, which allows Mordred to steal Arthur’s throne and queen

• War that actually leads to Arthur’s death is caused by Mordred, not Lancelot or Guinevere

• LMD shows tha Guinevere actually resists Mordred’s plot to overthrow Arthur in significant ways

  • When Mordred tries to marry ehr, she escapes to tower of London by pretending to leave for wedding preparation

  • Prepared Tower of London for siege, so it can hold out against attack by Mordred

    • Important castle for controlling use of Thames river

  • Only becomes nun after war is over, rather than during war, so that se can remain Arthur’s queen

• Depiction of queen differs from HKB in several ways

  • Geoffreys Guinevere married Mordred and then flees raht than helping prevent Mordred’s success

• In Malory’s tale, Mordred’s rebellion is helped by disloyalty of English people to their “rightful king”

  • Differs from HKB in which Mordred needs help of Saxons

• Malory draws parallel between disloyalty in Arthur’s time and his own time

  • Narrator says, “men say that we of this land have not yet lost that custom” (but which king does he mean?)

• Gawain’s death in Malory’s tale presents him as good knight at end of his life, after earlier sections presented Gawain as failing to repent for vengeful murdres

  • Gawain dies fighting for King Arthur against Mordred’s treason, not in war of vengeance against Lancelot

• before Gawain dies, he writes letter to Lancelot confessing error of seeking vengeance and asking for Lancelot’s prayers and help for King Arthur in war against Mordred

  • Brings Gawain closer to role he played as “best in knights” in HCWO and HKB

    • In HKB, Gawain was knighted by pope and become military leader in war against Romans, died fighting war against Mordred

• After Gawain’s death, Arthur has vision that reveals Gawain’s soul has entered heaven because of his service to women

  • Surprising explanation, since service to women was not something earlier parts of Malory’s tale discussed

• Gawain also becomes agent of heaven by warning Arthur not to fight Mordred on following day

• Arthur then confesses that he loves both Gawain and Lancelot, which highlights Arthur’s forgiveness of his knights, even if they make serious mistakes

• Arthur also dreams of falling of chair on wheel before final battle

  • Fortune’s wheel was traditional medieval symbol for instability of earthly success

  • King always shown at top, but under threat of fallin gas Lady Fortune turns wheel, while poor man may rise

• Arthur had similar dream in English poem Malory used as source for account of Arthur’s war against Romans

• Malory postponed dream in order to have Arthur win title of Emperor and then give other events related to Arthur’s downfall that were presented in French source

• Dream of unstable royal power echoes theme of instability as problem for most characters in Malory’s tale

  • Malory certainly knew of “Round Table” on wall of Winchester Castle, which looked similar to medieval images of Fortune’s Wheel

  • LMD states that Camelot was at city of Winchester

• Arthur tries to avoid battle with Mordred by negotiating truth, but battle starts by “misadventure”: serpent surprises knight, who draws sword

• Neither Arthur nor Mordred trusts the other to uphold the agreement to end the war and give Mordred rule of Arthur’s realm after his death

• Final battle between Arthur and Mordred echoes Celtic solar myth of rival’s challenge of weakened sun god for power; but Arthur kills Mordred instead and restores peace to kingdom after much death and destruction

  • Malory’s account of battle between Arthur and Mordred differs from HKB, in which Arthur and Mordred never fight each other personally

• Arthur’s killing of Mordred could be seen as act of vengeance, rather than justice

  • Sir Lucan advises Arthur to refrain from killing Mordred in vengeance

• Arthur calls Mordred “traitor” when they meet, which suggests Arthur sees himself as just king trying to protect kingdom from treason

• Arthur uses spear, rather than Excalibur, to kill Mordred

  • Better change of wounding enemy out of swords reach

  • Not that Arthur doesn’t retreat from Mordred, when Mordred pulls himself on spear close enough to strike Arthur with sword

  • Mordred strikes Arthur’s helmet with sword and wounds him, but dies

• Wounded Arthur commands Bedivere to return Excalibur to Lady of Lake

  • Protection for royal sword until given to next true king

• Bedivere’s role as Arthur’s trusted knight continues tradition

  • Bedwyr was one of Arthur’s two best knights in HCWO and Bedivere was Arthur’s trusted cup-bearer in HKB

• Bedivere’s desire to own Excalibur almost overcomes his loyalty to Arthur

  • Text suggests parallel between Bedivere and robbers who steal from corpses and even murder wounded knights in order to take their armor, but Bedivere ultimately follows Arthur’s command to throw sword into lake

• When Bedivere laments Arthur’s departure, Arthur tells him “comfort thyself and do as well as thou mayest, for in me is no trust for to trust in”

  • “comfort yourself and do the best you can, for there is no trust to be found in kings”

• Highlights theme of human instability in Malory’s narrative

  • Kings may do good things, but they are human

  • Echoes Galahad’s reminder to Lancelot about unstable world

  • Echoes Lancelot’s lament about instability of heroes

  • Foreshadowed Lancelot’s reaction to Arthurs death when Lancelot arrives too late to help defeat Mordred

  • Bedivere helps Arthur onto barge to go to Avillion with “many fair ladies: to have his wounds healed

    • Ladies included Queen Morgan le Fay, Queen of Nogales, Queen of Waste

• Malory’s account indicates that Arthur dies: Bedivere finds Arthur’s grave at hermitage near Glastonbury Abbey

  • Narrator says some people believe Arthur will return and gives Latin epitaph of Arthur’s tomb suggests possibility

  • Grave depicted as Arthur was “discovered” in 12th century adn body was buried inside Glastonbury Abbey; but abbey was closed in 16th C. and Arhtur’s tomb was lost

• Bedivere receives instruction from hermit and becomes model for surviving RT knights (echoes conduct of Percival and Bors in grail quest)

• After war ends, Guinevere becomes nun at Amesbury Abbey and does especially strict penance for her religious errors

  • She is admired so much she is chosen leader as other nuns at abbey

  • Fulfills narrator’s comment she was “true lover” with good end

• At her only meeting with Lancelot after becoming nun, Guinevere argues their love affair led to destruction of “flower [best] of kings and knights”

• Lancelot becomes a monk and does penance for his religious errors

  • After 6 years of being monk, Lancelot gets a vision that commands him to take care of Guinevere after her death

  • Lancelot response to Guinevere’s death suggests he has reformed from his earlier conduct and now follows spiritual values

    • He grieves her as noble wife of King Arthur, not as his beloved, and he buries her body next to Arthur

• Description of Lancelot’s death also suggests his achievement of holiness, fuliffling Nacien’s prophecy that Lancelot would die as “holy man”

  • No decomposition of dead body traditionally meant saintliness of soul

• Constantine of Cornwall becomes next king, but without RT knights

  • Some knights become “holy men”, but four become Crusaders in Holy Land and die on Good Friday (in imitation of Christ)

  • Both groups follow spiritual version of RT ideal of knighthood

  • Might be models that later Christian knights could follow

• End of final tale in WInchester manuscript gives important clues about Malory’s views of his narrative and life

  • Depicts tale of Arthur’s death as part of “whole book of King Arthur, and of his noble knights of the RT” (suggests he saw tale as one work)

  • Calls himself “knight” and “servant of Jesus” (echoes description of Grails knight and desomtstates to follow spiritual knighthood)

  • Statements at end of individual tales include name, role as prisoner, own prayers for God’s aid, and requests for readers to pray for his soul

• Malory completed LMD in same year as Yorkist king again denied him pardon

• Winchester manuscript suggests LMD was penitential act of knight who turned imprisonment into time for reflection on ideals of knighthood and kingship

• Malory’s account of King Arthur and RT knights presents new understanding of kingship and knighthood in world that is “unstable”

  • Suggets ways human beings might learn spiritual values, find forgiveness for errors, and fight for justice and mercy despite instability

• LMD is Arthurian masterpiece, though much of plot ins not original

• Malory’s choice of episodes, his organization of them, and new additions, offer more complex account of Arhtur’s life

• Malory’s “Englishing” of Arthurs earlier life is more than a simple translation of earlier sources into English language

  • Links places and events in Arthur’s life to English history and geography

  • Integrates English account of Arthur’s war against Romans with French tales about Arthur’s life

  • Gives King Arthur official role of Emperor of all of Europe, as well as King of England (not Britain)

  • GIves Arthur Grail appearance at camelot

  • Raises issued that had direct relevance to English society during civil war