Essential Expressions in Bharatanatyam

Charis: movements that include various angas, which are specific body movements (including the feet) that have been outlined as important for a classical dancer.

It is necessary for footwork to be associated with hand gestures and movements. Depending on the situation, the hands may lead, lag behind or follow the movements of the foot. Hands must correlated with the eye and eyebrow movements. It cannot be generically stated that the hands, facial expressions and feet are always in sync, but whenever the hands move the trunk moves synchronously, and at the end of every chari, the feet return to the ground and rest and the hands return to the hips.

Bharata’s Rule for Charis:

• Where the foot moves, the hand should go, where the hand moves, the entire body should follow.

Abhinaya Darpana and the Natyashastra on Charis:

• The Natyashastra lists 16 Bhaumi and 16 Akashi Charis.

• The Abhinaya Darpana only lists 8 charis, without any divisions.

• This shows a variety of tradition in Ancient India, as demonstrated by the texts.

Definitions:

1. Moving the feet shanks and hips simultaneously is a chari.

2. A movement of a single foot at a time is a Chari.

3. A movement of 2 feet moving at a time is a Karana.

4. A combination of 3 Karanas is called a Khandha.

5. A combination of 3 or four Khandas create the Mandala.

Uses of the Chari:

1. Charis can be used to portray fighting

2. Histrionic (overtly dramatic) presentation relies on the use of the Chari

3. Rules of the Chari, which are to be used in dance, ordinary movement and fights on stage.

• Akashi Charis: Defined as aerial charis, these include movements of the foot or bod in the air. Ex: jumping, pivoting in mid air.

  • They have one or both feet off the ground

  • Delicate movements

  • Used to portray the use of weapons, such as the bow and thunderbolt in dramas

  • List of Akashi Charis

    1. Atikranta: A kunchita foot is thrown up, put forward and caused to fall on the ground.

    2. Apakranta: The valana posture of the two thighs, a Kunchita foot raised and thrown down sideways.

    3. Parsvakranta: One foot in Kunchita and another thrown up and brought near the sides.

    4. Urdhvajanu: Throwing a kunchita foot upwards, with the knee brought to the level of the breast, the remaining knee without movement. Then, this action repeated with the other leg is called urdhvajanu.

    5. Suchi: A kunchita a foot thrown up and brought above the knee of the remaining foot and then to let it fall on its fore part.

    6. Nupurapadika: One Anchita foot raised up, and taken behind another foot and then quickly caused to fall to the ground.

    7. Dolapada: One Kunchita foot thrown up and moved from side to side and then caused to fall on the ground as an anchita foot.

    8. Akshipta: One Kunchita foot thrown up and then placing it quickly on an Anchita foot by crossing the shank of the remaining leg.

    9. Aviddha: One kunchita foot from the Svastika position stretching and falling on the ground quickly as an Anchita foot.

    10. Udvrtta: The Kunchita foot of the Aviddha chari, taken round (the thigh of the remaining leg) and thrown up and then cause to fall on the ground

    11. Vidyubhranta: One foot turned to the back after touching its top part to be stretched and the head moved in a circle.

    12. Alata: One foot stretched backwards and then put in and afterwards caused to fall in its heel.

    13. Bhujangatrasita: One Kunchita foot being thrown up, and the waist and the knee being turned round and the thigh of the remaining foot to be turned round as well.

    14. Harinapluta: The foot in the Atikranta Chari to be caused to fall on the gorund after a jump and the shank of an Anchita foot to be put in the Ksipta posture.

    15. Dandapada: The foot in the Nupurapadika chari to be stretched and quickly turned

    16. Bhramari: The foot in the Atikranta Chari to be thrown up and the entire body turned round and then the second foot to be moved on to its sole.

• Bhaumi Charis: Defined as earthly charis, these are movements made when the body stays on the ground

  • They have both feet on the ground.

  • Virile movements (strong, energetic), that are also rhythmic

  • Used to portray personal combat in dramas

  • In Bhaumi Charis, the entire sole touches the ground, the legs cross in Swastikas at the shanks and they are slightly oblique (slanted). Then, with a circular movement, they either come together or move away from each other.

  • List of Bhaumi Charis as stated in the Natyashastra:

    1. Samapada: Feet together, big toes touching after walking (resting position)

    2. Stithavartha: An agratalasanchara foot drawn up across the remaining foot. This movement repeated with another foot after separating the two creates stithavartha.

    3. Sakatasya: The body held upright, with one Agrathalasanchara foot stretched outward, with the chest held in Udvahita is called Sakatasya.

    4. Adhyardhika: This is created when the left foot is at the back, i.e. the heel of the right toe, the latter to be drawn away a tala and a half a part later

    5. Chasagati: The right foot is put forward and then drawn back and at the same time the left foot drawn back and put forward is called Chasagati.

    6. Vicyava: Separating the feet from the Samapada position and striking the ground with their fore part.

    7. Edakakridita: Jumping up and down with the Talasanchara feet is called Edakakridita.

    8. Baddha: The sideways movement of the thighs when the two shanks are slightly bent and the thigh turned out.

    9. Urudvrtta: The heel of a Talasanchara foot placed outwards, one of the shanks to be slightly bent and the thigh turned up.

    10. Addita: One agratalasanchara foot rubbing against the fore part or the back of another foot becomes Addita.

    11. Utsyandita: The two feet to move gradually sidways (literally in and out) in the manner of Rechaka.

    12. Janita: A Musti hand held at the breast and another hand moved round, and the feet to be Talasanchara.

    13. Syandita: One foot put forward five talas away from the other.

    14. Apasyandita: The reverse of the Syandita chari (i.e. another foot being put forward five talas away from the other)

    15. Samotsaritamalli: Going back with a circular movement and the feet being of the Talasanchara kind. Then, crossing the shanks create samotsaritamalli.

    16. Mattali: Going back with a circular movement and the hands being Udvesthita and motionless.

Sthanakas or Mandalas: Both of these are important body postures in Bharatanatyam, but they have a few differences.

Sthanakas: Specific to the character type, are separated into male and female positions

• Margi Sthanakas:

  • 9 Sthanakas

    • 6 Male and 3 Female

  • Each of these sthanakas depict a specific feeling or invoke a certain deity.

• Desi Sthanakas:

  1. Swastika Sthana: Used in adavus in Bharatanatyam

  2. Samhatha sthana: similar to samapadha

  3. Ekapadha:

  4. Prstottanatala: used in “nadai” or walking in Bharatanatyam

  5. Vaishnavadesi sthana: used to show Lord Krishna

  6. Garduda Sthana and Vrisabhasana: used in all the Indian Classical Dance Styles

Mandalas: Are nritta positions, and is only used to create an artistic form

• These are not meant to convey any stories and are ornamental.

Asanas by the Natyashastra:

1. Satpum Stanakan

2. Sthree Sthanakani

3. Akashi Mandalini

4. Bhaumamandalani

5. Asana Vidhi

6. Sayana Karma Nisat

Technical aspects of Dramatic Presentation: This includes light, sound, stage, decor, orchestra and its components, as well as the dancers costumes and make up. The way all of these things should be done is clearly outlined in the Natyashastra.

Pathya: In the Natyashastra, Bharata takes efforts to make a distinction on what qualifies as appropriate diction in a variety of contexts. Anything that is recited on stage falls into one of two categories.

1. Sanskrta: The recitation originates from Sanskrit

2. Prakrta: The recitation is from a local dialect

Elements of Angika Abhinaya:

Charis should be simultaneous movements of various parts of the body, such as the feet, shanks, thighs, and the movements of the toes, ankles, heels and the sole.

All dances from India are based on the 6 padabhedas, as they are from religious practices. Indian classical dancing is generally based on three of them, Sama Padha, Anchita Padha, and Agrathala Padha, while western dancing is based on Agrathala Sanchara (i.e. toe.)

The Pada Bhedhas are used by various classical dance forms according to regional practices:

• Kunchita Bhramari and Akasabhramari are common in Manipuri

• Alagotplavanam is commonly used in Bharatanatyam for “Dhalangu”

• Chakrabhramari and Ekapadabhramari are common features in Kathak.

• Kunchitapada with Mandala sthana is a basic pose of Kathakali

Thus, Indian dance is based on a variety of Padabhedas.

Movements of the Gulfa (Ankle): There are five ankle movements.

1. Angusthasamslistam: When the ankle is joined to the big toe.

2. Antaryatam: When the ankle is bent inside.

3. Bahiryatam: When the ankle is bent facing outwards.

4. Mithoyuktum: When the ankles are joined together.

5. Viyuktam: When the ankles are separated from each other.

Movements of the Parsni (Heel): There are eight positions of the heels, which are seen in the Charis and Sthanas of the foot.

1. Utkshiptam: When the heels are raised

2. Patitam: When the heels are fallen

3. Utkshiptapatitam: When the heels are raised and fallen, consecutively.

4. Antargatam: When the heels are bent inside.

5. Bahirgatam: When the heels are bent outside.

6. Mithayuktam: When the heels are joined together.

7. Viyuktam: When the heels are separated.

8. Angulisamyutam: When the heels are joined to the toes.

Movements of the Carananguli (Toes): There are five movements of the toes.

1. Adhahksiptam: This is done when the toes are constantly falling down.

   • This is used to depict anger.

2. Utkshiptam: This gesture occurs when the toes are bent facing upwards.

   • This is used to depict/suggest bashfulness

3. Kunchitam: It occurs when the toes are bent down.

   • This suggests fear, cold and swoon.

4. Prasaritam: This movement occurs when the toes are extended

   • This suggests paralysis, sleep and in relaxing the limbs.

5. Samlagnam: This is when the big toe is joined with the other toes and then separated repeatedly.

   • It is used in dragging something.

Movements of the Caranatala (Sole): There are six movements of the sole.

1. Uddhrtam: When the sole is held up.

2. Patitgagram: When the sole is fallen.

3. Uddhutagram: When the forepart of the sole is raised.

4. Bhumilagnakam: When the sole is touching the ground.

5. Kuncanmadhyam: When the middle part of the sole is bent.

6. Tirascinam: When the sole is slanting.

Classifications of Angika Abhinaya: There are many ways to classify Angika Abhinaya. The Natyashastra outlines these in order to provide an in depth analysis of the art.

1. Gatripracara: Expressive movement

2. Nritta: Rhythmic Movement

Movement can also be divided further into a different classification.

• Sthitis or postures: Standing, sitting and lying down

• Gati or physical movement: State of mind, emotion and rasa

Margi and Desi: Angika Abhinaya, alternatively, can also be classified as Margi and Desi movements.

1. Margi: Path or tradition

   1. Margi is the classical dance style, which is described in the Natyashastra, which does not acknowledge Desi dance. Marga dance style which keeps with the traditions, and is generally regarded as of high status.

   2. There are six types of Tala Marga

      1. Citra

      2. Citra Tara

      3. Citratama

      4. Vartika

      5. Daksina

      6. Aticitratama

2. Desi: Provincial, or of regional impact

   1. Desi dance styles are regionally done, such as folk dance. They became a serious art form later on.

   2. “Desa” literally means a region or area. Therefore, Desi Nritya is conditioned by the geographical unit, with entertainment intended to be enjoyed by the common people. It is prepared in accordance with local customs, and may not be appealing to those from other regions.

Sage Bharata (Author of the Natyashastra), divides the poses into two types: Margi and Desi

In total there are 51 Poses

13 of them are Margi Sthanakas:

• 6 for men

• 7 for women

23 of them standing Desi Sthanakas, which have no distinction between for males or females.

The rest consist of 9 sitting poses, and 6 reclining poses.

Also, according to the Natyashastra, there are two types of charis, mainly.

Margi consists of:

• 16 Bhaumicharis

• 16 Akashicharis

The Desi Style has:

• 38 Bhaumicharis

• 19 Akashicharis

Indian vs Western Dancing Theory: When comparing Indian and Western dance styles it is important to consider the different approaches to the purpose of dance. Indian dance is encompasses the technique of showcasing certain movements within a rhythmic cycle (tala). Indian dancing seeks to depict the perfect point or movement of balance along the vertical median (Bhramasutra.) All movements will return to the perfect position (sama) to the point where the balance is sculpturesque, to the point where it can be depicted as such.

Indian dancing concerns itself with the human form in direct relation to the pull of gravity. In Western ballet, movement in space where the human form is free from the effect of gravity has more emphasis. This is why Indian dancing lacks the leaps and jumps characteristic of Western ballet.

Additionally, western dance styles eliminate space, showing freedom of space. The body is worn through intricate patterns in order to create beautiful dynamic movements. Indian dance, however, seeks to win the battle against time, each movement meant to convey a sense of timelessness.

Except for some aspects of Kathakali, none of the Indian dance styles have a focus on leaps and jumps. Bharata’s analysis of dance does not include possibilities of movement in a space where both and hands and feet lose contact with the ground in any of the 108 karanas or the 32 angaharas. This movement composition must be studied from western dance.

The Indian dancer does not take into account the musculature of the human body, but the joints and anatomical bone structure in order to create and understand the geometric patterns done in dance effectively.

The Natyashastra also accounts for choreographical patterns of composition called the Pindibandha. The Pindibandha contains Gulma, Srinkhala, Lathabhandha and Bhedyaka.

Gait: (The way one walks) is to be according to the person, sentiment, situation, place and occasion. A character must enter the stage to the laya (tempo) of the musical instruments.

Bharata also details the different gaits of young women, passionate women, aged women, half women, children, tribal women and more, but they are not covered in these categories.

Characters are divided into three types (again, note, these only apply to men):

• Uttama: Superior, possibly regal

  • Steps should be taken in four kalas

  • Slow walking

  • In the natural gait, the superior character is to raise his knee up to the waist.

• Madhyama: Middling

  • Steps should be taken in two kalas

  • Medium tempo walking

• Nica: Of low status

  • Steps should be taken in only one kala

  • Quick and copious steps

According to Bharatha, the characters of superior and middling types should assume the Vaisnava sthana. Bharatha also details Gaits in various rasas for dance and drama, as explained in the Natyashastra.

Gaits in Various Rasas:

1. Sringhara:

   • Love, the gait should be graceful. The lover should enter the stage guided by a female messenger, showing the way. He is to convey the meaning of the sentence by gestures and bhavas before resorting to words.

   • He must walk in Atikranta Chari in proper laya and tala. The movement of the hands must follow the movement of the feet.

2. Raudra:

   • Cruelty, destructive anger

   • A persion should stand with feet four talas apart, and take steps four talas wide.

3. Bhibhasta:

   • Disgust, odious sentiment

   • A person should walk with the feet in Edakakridita chari, (i.e. jumping up and down on the toes) falling in succession, sometimes close to and sometimes wide apart from each other, and the hands should follow the steps.

4. Veera:

   • Self assurance, valor (hero walk)

   • A person must walk with swift steps, making use of various charis.

5. Adhbutha and Hasya:

   • Wonder, humor or frivolity. *Wonder = Adhbutha, Humor or frivolity = Hasya

   • The Madhyama and Nica characters should take swift, short steps in all directions.

6. Karuna:

   • Compassion or pity

   • The gait must be in a slow tempo, eyes full of tears, and arms thrown up and down.

7. Bhayanaka:

   • Fear

   • The person should walk with quick steps, a trembling body and a faltering gait.

The different kinds of stepping are classified in Gathi Bedha.

Gathi Bedha: There are 10 unique ways of Gathi Bhedha (Gait).

1. Hamseegathi: Walk while keeping one foot in front of the other and sway with each steo, hold kapitha hasta in both hands. (Walk like a swan)

2. Mayooreegathi: Stand on the tip of toes, hold Kapitha in both hands and fold up the legs for each step. (Walk like a peacock)

3. Mrugeegathi: Hold Tripataka hasta in both hands and run like a deer.

4. Gajagathi: Hold Pataka hasta near the ears, walk very slowly with Samapaada.

5. Turangineegathi: Lift the right leg, hold Shikhara in left hand and Pataka in right hand and jump with the left leg. (Like riding a horse)

6. Simheegathi: Hold shikara hasta in both hands, jump on toes and move forward. (Like a lion’s walk)

7. Bhujangeegathi: Hold Tripataka in both hands and walk as explained in Simheegathi. (Assume a snake’s walk)

8. Mandookeegathi: Like simheegathi (difference not clarified in book)

9. Veeragathi: Hold Shikara in left hand, pataka in right and walk as though coming from afar.

10. Maanaveegathi: Keep the left hand on the waist, Katakamukha in right, and walk while turning around for each step.

Study of Indian Temples: Dance and sculpture are twins of the mother art. In India, they embrace each other in the shadow of religion. The dance postures engraved in sculptures are taken as an ancient grammar of dance.

Further Information: Tamil Nadu is known as “The Land of Temples”. There are over 30,000 temples in the state, built by various dynasties. These temples are characteristic of Dravidian architecture, art, and culture, which is shown by the ornamented temples with soaring towers known as Gopuras. Temples are not just a place of worship, but celebration, education, and gathering. They were used as storehouses and hospitals.

The following charts will give some context on the most important Indian temples from each region, in order to fully understand the significance of temples in India and Indian art.

South Indian Temples:

North Indian Temples: 

North-east Indian Temples:

North-west India:

Next, we will go into detail, covering numerous temples.

SOUTH INDIAN TEMPLES:

Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram:

• Chidambaram is known as “The City of the Cosmic Dancer.”

• This temple is an example of Chola architecture.

• The temple, dedicated to the dancing form of Shiva known as Nataraja, acts a tribute to Bharatanatyam.

• Chidambaram is famous for the simplicity of its objects of worship, which contain Akasa (ethereal space) and Rahasya (a chakra on the wall)

• The five steps leading to the hall are covered with silver plates, and are meant to symbolize the five sacred letters in the Panchakshara mantra

• The temple is longer from North-South which differs from most temples, which are longer from east to west.

• The temple has four gopurams. At the entrance of the gopurams, the 108 Karanas are depicted, in the form of a lady dancing.

• Each Karana has a line from the Natyashastra written under it.

• This temple is one of the Pancha Bootham and represents vacuum space, which is one of the five elements. (The other four are water, earth, fire and air.)

• The Natyanjali festival is celebrated every year during the months of February-March and is dedicated to Lord Shiva. This festival takes place on temple premises, and begins on the auspicious day of Maha Shivaratri.

• People from around the world come perform at this festival, showcasing a variety of different talents.

Mahabalipuram :

• Is a place of architectural importance, called Mamallapuram, also known as the seven Pagodas

• The “Seven Pagodas” name was likely given by European sailors, on accounts of the seven stupis or pinnacles of the temple

• Shows refined beautiful sculptural representation of the various Puranic scenes

• The famous Vaishnava Bhoodattalvar is said to be reincarnated at this place

• The Vaishnava saint Thirumangaialvar mentions that Shiva lives with Vishnu, so we see the shrines of both gods in Mahabalipuram

• The ancient town of Mahabalipuram was a flourishing sea port during 1 A.D. and 140 A.D. (Periplus and Ptolemy)

• Mahabalipuram includes 14 rock cave-cut temples called mandapas, 9 monolithic shrines called rathas and 4 sculptured relief rock panels and the famous shore temples.

• The structures were built by 3 successive Pallava kings, who developed the Dravidian style of temple architecture over the (short) span of 100 years.

• Mahabalipuram hosts a dance festival every year on Christmas, and artists from all around the world take part in showcasing classical and folk dance

Parthasarathi Temple, Triplicane, Chennai:

• Dedicated to Krishna

• Shows sculptures and painting of Krishna wounded in the battle of the Mahabharata

• This made of a dark metal

Kapaleshwarar Temple, Mylapore, Chennai:

• Dedicated to Lord Shiva

• Gets its name from the legend where Goddess Parvati, who was incarnated as a peacock, worships the Lingam to free herself from that incarnation

• The legend is commemorated in a sculpture in the North Parka (courtyard) of the temple

• In Vaishnavite, Saivite and Jain religious manuscripts, the place is called Thirumayilai, while the early Portugese settlers called it Santhome de Meliapore

• Kapaleshwarar Temple has contemporary structure, despite being built in 8th century A.D.

• The construction of the temple is based on the descriptions in the Puranas and Tevarams

Thiruvarankalam:

• There is a bronze sculpture of Shiva made in the Chola dynasty

• In this depiction of Nataraja, the Lord has four arms.

  • One right hand holds the damaru, a small hand drum marking the rhythm of dance

  • The left hand holds a flame, symbolizing both destruction and creation

  • Another left arm crosses the body, at ease, in order to point at the left foot, which is raised and crossed to the side

  • The right hand makes a gesture of protection

• This is the iconic Nataraja, and the first conception of Nataraja in this form

Viruthapurieshwarar Temple, Virudhachalam:

• Four gopuras of this temple show the 108 Karana sculptures

• They are not found in the finished form

Utthara Chidambaram, Sathara:

• Dedicated to Lord Shiva

• Shows all 108 Karanas

• Each Karana is dedicated to Lord Shiva and Parvati

Garuda at Kerala:

• The vehicle of Vishnu is depicted with a winged figure, a human body in a birds head, or a human head with a beak

• There are different interpretations

• The polychrome wooden ornament from a Kerala temple represents a decorative interpretation of a mythical creature in a folk style

Halebid:

• An old palace is said to have stood east of the present town

• There is fine execution in the Kannada characters drawn, and decorative granite slab pillars.

NORTH INDIAN TEMPLES:

Sun Temple of Konark, Orissa:

• Dedicated to Lord Surya

• Made by King Narasimha Deva of the Ganga dynasty

• It is decorated with sculptures of huge female musicians in graceful dance poses

• It is the best known sun temple in India

• Konark means “corner sun”

• Dates back to the 13th century, the highest point of Orissa temple architecture

• The black pagoda at Konark is grand and magnificent

• It contains 24 huge wheels, representing the sun’s chariot, marking the hours of the day

• The image of Lord Surya found in the temple is distinguished in quality and sensitive in modeling. However, despite the complexity of its figure, many belive that it does not belong to the main temple, but many small, ruined temples in the west and southwest, that were discovered to be covered in debris.

• Konark city has a dance festival every year in December,

• It is held in an open-air theater close to the Sun temple with performances from important classical dancers of India.

• Various dance forms such as Odissi, Manipuri, Bharatanatyam and Kathak are performed at the same stage. The culture of India really comes through during the festival.

Sarnath:

• Built because of the Mauryan emperor Asoka’s patronage in the 2nd century BC

• The four lions back to back found at Sarnath was adopted as India’s National Emblem

TEMPLES OF NORTH-EAST INDIA

Simhachalam:

• Shrine is built on the hills about 800 feet above the sea

• The foundation of the temple is attributed to the story of Hiranyakushubu, who, furious at his son Prahada’s devotion to Vishnu, threw him into the sea and placed this hill on his head.  

• Narahsimha came to his rescue

• Later on, Prahaladha found the shrine

• One of the pillars in the muku mandapam is named the “tribute pillar” and attracts crowds due to the legend of curing cattle diseases and granting children to infertile women.

Kandariya Mahadeo:

• This is the largest and most typical Khajuraho Temple.

• It contains about 900 statues and is dedicated to Lord Shiva.

• The sanctum and shrines a lingam while the main Shrine is elaborately carved and depicts various gods goddesses and Heavenly  maidens in great detail. 

• The entrance Arch and the huge pillars and ceilings are decorated with beautiful carvings that leave the visitor spellbound.

Mount Govardhana:

• Dedicated to Krishna

• It portrays miniature carvings of Krishna during his time in Vrindavan

• Only traces of the paint remain

Matangeshwara Temple:

• Dedicated to Shiva, located right outside the western group

• It has an 8-foot tall lingam

• Still a relevant place of worship

• There is an archeological museum south this temple, which has a display of statues collected from this area

EASTERN TEMPLES

Duladeo Temple:

• Dedicated to Lord Shiva

• Has sensuous images of the heavenly maidens

TEMPLES OF NORTH-WEST INDIA

Ajanta and Ellora, Aurangabad, Mumbai:

• Temples carved out of living rock over the course of fourteen centuries

• Work began in 4th century A.D.

• Contains Buddhist, Jainist and Hindu carvings, showing a diversity of religion

• Buddhists monks and artisans have excavated a set of 29 caves, some cells, monasteries and Buddhist temples

• The Buddhist and Jainist caves show a peaceful, meditative state, a stark contrast to the Hindu caves, where the goal seems to be to showcase divine power

• The most impressive creation at Ellora is the Kailasa Temple, a full sized, freestanding temple made out of solid rock, which was made in devotion to Shiva and Parvathi, and their success in defeating Ravana, the demon king of Sri Lanka

• Beautiful spires, pillars and podiums are found here

Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh:

• Signifies an early stupa form of North India

• The stone of the stupa was covered with plaster and painted at its top

• The stupa is a symbol of Buddhism

Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh:

• The town of Khajuraho boasts of its erotic sculptures

• These glorious temples are the highlight of the state

• Shows the boar avatara of Vishnu in high clarity

• Showcase statues of gods, godesses, warriors, and celestial dancers and animals, along with couples in erotic poses

• The Hindu philosophies of Yoga and Bhoga (physical pleasure) the two paths leading to final liberation are the underlying themes in these sculptures

• They celebrate Hindu faith and the exuberant love for the divine

• Show sculptural beauty, and the earthly pleasures of life

• There is a beautiful sculpture of a girl writing a love letter, and though the sculpture looks quite natural, it requires immense skill from the sculptor

Elephanta Caves:

• The most profound aspect of Shiva is found in the Elephanta caves.

• The cave was damaged by vandals after the Europeans discovered it, but Tirumurithi of Mahadeva faced little injury.

• Tirumurthi represents the 3 aspects of Shiva

  • The central image of the head and shoulders, as withdrawn from the world, but also benign

  • The second shows him in the Mahayogi, meditative state

  • The third sculpture depicts him in Ardhanareswerar, the half-man, half-woman form he shares with his wife Parvathi

Elements of Aharya Abhinaya: “Aharya Abhinaya” means elements of abhinaya that are expressed through ornamentation. We will discuss a few aspects of Aharya Abhinaya.

The Playhouse:

• There are 3 types of playhouses.

  • Vikrsta (Rectangular)

  • Caturasra (Square)

  • Tryasra (Triangular)

    • This playhouse is constructed with 3 corners, and the stage is also triangular

    • One of the doors in in the corner of the playhouse, and the other in the back of the stage

• The size of the Playhouse may range from 108 hastas, large; 64 hastas, medium; or 32 hastas, small.

• In general, bigger stages should not be used as expression may not be visible, and bhava and rasa may be lost as a result

• The playhouse should resemble a cave with small, latticed, windows in order not to bring too much wind in.

• The stage should be laid with stone as described:

  • diamond in the east

  • lapis lazuli in the south

  • crystals in the west

  • coral in the north

• The central part, or the plinth is laid in gold

• Ornamental work and wood work decoration such as images of animals should be fixed in different parts of the floor

• The galleries should accommodate for the audience to comfortable watch the performace, with each row one hasta higher than the other

  • The lowest row should be one hasta higher than the ground

Units in which a playhouse is measured:

• Eight Anus make one Raja

• Eight Rajas make one Bala

• Eight Balas make one Liksa

• Eight Liksas make one Yuka

• Eight Yukas make one Yava

• 8 Yavas make one Angula

• 24 angulas make 1 hasta (each angula is 2 cm/0.7 inches)

• Four hastas make one Danda

The Mattavarni (Side Room):

• The side rooms of a stage can be on either side of the stage, and can be as long as the stage.

• Both the side rooms and the stage should be raised to the height of one and a half hastas

• The stage and Mattarvani are constructed by leveling the soil, plasterwork, whitewashing and painting

Lights in Bharatanatyam:

• Despite technological advancements, Kerala Kathakali still uses lamps lit by oil\

  • They use large bronze lamps in order to create a spiritual environment

• Flood Lights vs Spotlights:

  • Flood lights are spread evenly

  • Spot lights are at a particular spot

• Lights should not be directly on the head, or it will cause to many shadows on the face, hiding the expressions and creating a ghastly look

• Footlights used to be used, which were kept in line with the dancers feet, but it hid the dancers footwork, and used to disturb the eyes of the audience and dancer

• General rules:

  • Foot lights should be avoided

  • Lights should not fall directly on the screen, or the dancers figure will not look bright

  • Spot lights should be held well above from both sides

  • Flood lights should be tied up, not directly above the dancers head, but at an angle, right in front of the center spot.

Sound:

• In earlier times, the vocal artists had to sing loudly, so the stages used to be small

  • The Greeks used have their theaters in a small, semi-circle fashion in order for the sound to be spread naturally

    • These were known as amphi-theaters

• The stage should not have an echo

• In Bharatanatyam, usually only the vocalist and the nattuvanar have mikes, while the other instruments don’t

  • This is malpractice. All instruments should have microphones, and the volume of the instruments should be lowered technically through the speakers, because that’s the way the sound reaches our ears. Only in this way does the music become properly balanced.

Make Up: Make up is relatively simple in Bharatanatyam, not as heavy as it kathakali. In the past, Bharatanatyam dancers used natural products such as beetle leaves to make their lips red and turmeric paste for their face. Now, however, there are many more options.

• Base

  • This is an oil based creme (foundation) that should be applied evenly. There are various colors for various skin tones available.

• Shades

  • These can be used on the cheeks and below the eyebrows to contour and modify the appearance of the dancers face. You can make a round face sharper by applying the shades below the cheeks, and a nose could be highlighted if flat by applying the shade on either side of the nose bridge.

• Powder

  • Should be used with a powder puff lightly in order not to remove the base.

• Pancake

  • Should be applied with a sponge, like the base, is also available in various shades

  • The sponge should be soaked in water and then dipped in the pancake and applied evenly

  • Only when all three steps are done will it cause the makeup to last a long time

• Pencil

  • The eyes and eyebrows should be done with an eyebrow pencil and the brows should be preferably black

  • The eyes can be portrayed as wider or smaller

• Lipstick

  • The brush can help make the lips smaller or broader, depending on the dancers features

• Thilakam (Bindi)

  • In between the eyebrows a bindi should be placed

  • The color should be black or red, because those colors will appear most prominently on stage

• Other

  • The pancake should be applied on the hands and neck in order to blend with the face

  • The feet and palms should be tainted with mehendi or alta

Kathakali Make Up: Kathakali make up is to be done by experts only, but the fundamental concepts are a requirement for a dancer to know.

• Makeup takes around 8 hours before the performance

• The color of the face and beard varies for each character

  • If the character is good, it is green.

  • If the character is a hunter or a tribal member, it is black

  • If the character is a demon, it is red

  • Good characters have a white beard

  • Bad characters have a light brown beard

  • Hanuman has very complicated Kathakali work

  • Women have a natural skin color

Aesthetic Expression in Costume and Make Up:

There are a few ways a mood, sentiment or character is depicted:

1. Pusta (Model Work): Can be described as props and sets in western terms (my understanding)

   • Sandhima: Things made by normal people out of a mat or hide cloth

   • Vyajimas: Objects made through mechanical devices

   • Vestima: Produced by wrapping ordinary objects

   • Examples of Pusta:

     • Hills, vehicles, chariots, shields, armor, flagstaffs, and trees, all contructed for use in a dramatic production

1. Alankara (Ornamentation)

   1. Malya (Garland)

      1. Vestima (encircling)

      2. Vitata (spread out)

      3. Sanghatya (grouped together)

      4. Granthima (tied up)

      5. Pralambita (suspended down)

   2. Abharana (Jewelry)

      1. Avedhya (ornaments that pierce the body or limbs)

         1. Ex: Earrings

      2. Bandhaniya (ornaments that are tied up)

         1. Ex: Girdles or arm bands

      3. Praksepya (ornaments that are worn over clothing )

         1. Ex: Anklets

      4. Aropya (ornaments that are put around)

         1. Ex: Chains, necklaces

Ornaments for Women : While jewelry and the use of jewelry has changed over time, as we can see in ancient sculptures and paintings, the names and jewels used in Bharatanatyam have remained consistent for the last 200 years.

IMPORTANT ORNAMENTS FOR WOMEN:

IMPORTANT ORNAMENTS FOR MEN:

We will now go through the ornaments, in detail for each sex:

Ornaments for Women:

1. Head

   1. Rakudi (center ornament behind the head)

   2. Thalaisman (head set that aligns the sun and moon on either side of the head)

   3. Jadai nagam (ornament that covers the long plait)

   4. Kunjalam (accessories which is worn at the end of a long plait)

   5. Siknapasa-Sikhajala

   6. Pindipatra

   7. Cudaimani

   8. Makarika

   9. Muktajali (pearl net)

   10. Gavaksa

   11. Sirsikala (hair net)

2. Face

   1. Earrings

   2. Mattal (ornament that connects from the ear stud to the hair)

3. Nose

   1. Nose ring

   2. Bullock

4. Ear

   1. Kandaka

   2. Kundala (earrings)

   3. Sikhipatra

   4. Khadgapatra

   5. Veniguccha (braid of hair)

   6. Kanravalaya

   7. Patrakarnika

   8. Karnamudra

   9. Kanotkilaka (ear tops)

   10. Dantapatras

   11. Karnapura

5. Cheeks

   1. Tilaka

   2. Patraleka

6. Neck

   1. Attigai (necklace which is closer to the neck (choker))

   2. Haram (Long chains either made of pearls, or any pendant chains. Could also use Kasimala (chains made of gold coins))

   3. The pearl necklace

   4. Vyalapankti (snake group)

   5. Manjuri

   6. Ratnamalika (jewel string)

   7. Ratnavali

   8. Sutraka

   9. Dvisara (two stringed necklace)

   10. Trisara (three stringed necklace)

   11. Catussara (four stringed necklace)

   12. Gold chains

7. Hands

   1. Vanki (worn on the arms)

   2. Bangles

   3. Finger rings

8. Hip

   1. Ottiyatam

   2. Megala (like a belt)

   3. Kanci (net of pearls)

   4. Mekhala (eight stringed strand)

   5. Kalapa (25 stringed strand)

9. Ankles

   1. Nupura

   2. Kinkini

   3. Rajnajala (jewel net)

10. Legs

    1. Salangai (made of leather with bells stitched on it)

    2. Kolusu (anklets)

    3. Padapatra (jewels for the shanks)

    4. Toe rings

    5. Tilaka

11. Tilaka

    1. Tilaka applied on the forehead in various designs

    2. Guccha applied over the eyebrows

12. Breast

    1. Jeweled net is an ornament for the back and the breast

13. Upper Arm

    1. Angada

    2. Valaya

14. Fore arm

    1. Varjura Kharjuks

    2. Svecchita Socchitika

All the jewels above can be in gold or gold plated, with red and green semi-precious stones. In South India, the jewels are golden in color, but in North India, the jewels are made of silver or another white metal.

Dance drama jewelry should be according to the character. A gypsy needs to have beads or shells, portraying Lord Shiva requires the crescent moon, Lord Krishna needs a feather on his head, a king needs a crown, etc.

In Kathakali (from Kerala) and Yakshagna (from Karnataka) there are heavy crowns with particular sizes that must be followed.

Ornaments for Men:

1. Head Ornaments

   1. Cudamani (crest jewels)

   2. Mukuta (crown)

2. Ear Ornaments

   1. Kundala (earring)

   2. Mocaka (pendant)

   3. Kila (ear drops)

3. Neck Ornaments

   1. Muktavali (pearl necklace)

   2. Harsaka (serpent shaped ornaments)

   3. Sutraka (gold thread)

4. Finger Ornaments

   1. Vetika (bangle shaped ring)

   2. Angulimudra (ring)

5. Forearm

   1. Hastali

   2. Vayala (bangles)

6. Wrist

   1. Rucika (bracelet)

   2. Uccitika

7. Elbow

   1. Keyura (armlet)

   2. Angada (armband)

8. Chest

   1. Trisara (three stringed necklace)

   2. Hara (chain)

9. Waist band

   1. Tarala

   2. Sutraka

10. Whole Body

    1. Hanging down pearl necklace

    2. Flower garland

Costume: Costumes in Bharatanatyam have changed for centuries. It used to be the Sadir costume, then the full pyjama, then a nine yard sari, and now we have the dress pre-stitched from a sari, with the fan in the center opening beautifully, allowing the dancer to also feel comfortable.

When selecting a Bharatanatyam costume, height, complexion and weight should be take into consideration. The dancer should have a costume that suits their complexion. If a dancer is tall a costume with vertical lines will suit her, and if she is short, horizontal lines will suit her.

Common colors that look good on stage are red, yellow, green and blue.

Costumes for dance dramas should be according to the state, language, time period and age, whether the costume is for king, demon, God, or man.

Female Costumes:

1. Vidhyadharas

   1. Should be in white

   2. Hair should be in a top knot

2. Yaksis and celestial women

   1. Should have jewels

   2. Only Yaksis should wear a simple Sikha or hair knot

3. Naga Women

   1. Hoods embellished with pears and jewels, similar to celestial women, but clearly snake-like

4. Young maidens of sages

   1. Simple clothing

   2. Little ornaments

   3. Hair should be in a veni (single braid)

5. Young Siddha Women

   1. Yellow clothing

   2. Emerald and pearls

6. Gandharvis

   1. Saffron

   2. Rubies

   3. Holding Veena in hands

7. Rakshasis

   1. Sapphire ornaments

   2. White curved teeth

8. Actual Women

   1. Variation based on region

   2. Ex: Avanti women have wavy hair

   3. Ex: Abhira ladies have 2-plaited tresses with garments in blue

Male Costumes: The painting of limbs (Angavartana) is crucial to male costumes. There are four natural colors, white, blue, yellow and red. Mixing white and yellow makes Pandu. Mixing white and blue makes Kaarandava. Mixing white and red gives you Padma (lotus.) Mixing blue and yellow gives you Harita (green). Blue and red gives you Hasya (dark red) Gaura (pale red) is made by mixing red and yellow.

1. Natyadharmi rules of Angavartana

   1. Devas and Yaksas are portrayed as pale red

   2. Rudra Arka or the Sun, and skunda are golden

   3. Moon, Brihaspati, Sukra, Varuna, the stars and the ocean, Himalayas, Ganga and Balarama are all white in complexion.

   4. Buddha and fire are yellow

   5. Narayana, Nara and the Serpent Vasuki are dark in colors

   6. Daityas, Daanavas, Rakshasas, Guhayakas, Pisacas, deities of the mountains, water and sky are dark blue in complexion.

   7. Yaksas, Gandharvas, Bhutas, Pannagas, Vidyadharas and monkeys are all of various colors.

   8. Human beings in Sapta Dvipas should be in molten gold

   9. Men of Bhadrasva should be white

   10. Men of Ketumala should be blue

   11. Men of Varsas should be rose complexioned

   12. Bhutas and vamanas are of various colors and should wear ugly masks of boars, sheep buffaloes and deer

   13. Kings should be rose complexioned or dark

       1. Good kings are rose complexioned

       2. Evil kings are dark

   14. Sages should be plum colored, and dark when in penance

   15. Regional variations must be honored in human beings

       1. Ex: Kshatriyas should be rose colored

       2. Ex: Vaisyas and sudras should be in dark blue

Beard and Mustache:

1. Religious Mendicants, ministers and priests (those averse to sensual delights)

   1. Clean shaven

2. Divine male characters such as Siddhas and Vidyadharas, Kings and Princes

   1. A smartly trimmed mustache

3. People who have been affected by calamities

   1. Dark colored mustache

4. Sages, Ascetics and people with long standing

   1. Bushy mustache and beard

Three Kind Classification of Costumes:

• White, red, and variegated 

• Auspicious events like visiting the temple of deities —---> men and women wear white

• Gods, Danakas, Nagas, Gandharvas etc. should wear variegated costumes.

• Sages —--> bark of tree and animal hide

• Variegated costumes go to people from noble birth

• People guarding the harem should be given Kasaya or red clothing.

Three Kind Classification of Crowns:

• Parsvagata (side crown)

  • Gandharvas, Yaksas, Pannagas and Rakshasas

• Mastaki (forehead coronet)

  • Lower gods’ crown

• Kriti (crown)

  • Superior gods’ crown

Other Crowns:

• Mukuta (Crowns made of locks of hair)

  • Vidyaadharas, Sidhas and Caranas

• Turbans

  • Ministers, Kancukins, leaders of merchant guilds

• Ardhamukuta (half coronet) 

  •  Army captains and crown princes

• Sikhanda (Tuft of hair) 

  •  heads of boys

• Jata Mukuta 

  •  crowns of matted hair

• Brown hair and tawny beards 

  •  Rakshasas, Danavas and Yaksas 

• Long hair

  • Bhutas, Pisacas,  lunatics, aspiring ascetics 

• Clean Shaven Head

  • Buddhist monks

  • Srotriyas 

  • Wandering sages

Stage Props: Weapons should be proportionate. The javelin should be twelve talas or 144 angulas, the khunta should be ten talas, the trident or Sula shall measure eight talas. The sword should be 80 angulas long and the Khetaka or rider’s shield shall be 30 angulas in width.

Fundamental Components of Dramatic Presentation: Depending on the theme and metric composition of the dramatic poem, dramatic representations have been classified into ten types, let’s see a simple overview of them.

While these are dramatic storylines, there are other aspects to Dramatic Presentation, as well.

• Viskambha 

  • Explanatory scene, it can happen before an Anka or between two Ankas, but characters in the scene are of mixed type

• Bija

  • Fundamental Theme of the Play, which comes to fruition at the end

• Bindu 

  • Turning point of the play, dramatic plot unfolds

• Pataka

  • Incidents that are not as important to the main plot, but is treated with equal importance

• Prakari

  • When a subsidiary event is presented to advance the main plot

• Karya

  • The dramatic elements directly advance the main plot

• Patakasthana 

  • Episode indication, happens in four types: 

    • Pratama Pataksthana

      • Sudden development of the plot through a suggestion

    • Dvithiya Pataksthana 

      • Play on words, double entendre, further developments are suggestively brought out

    • Trithiya Pataksthana 

      • Subject is referred to indirectly through a dialogue clearly about something else

    • Caturtha Pataksthana 

      • The utterance of words with double meaning in a well structured verse

• Sandhi 

  • The dramatic story or plot is classified into five junctures of Sandhis in classical drama 

  • Some need to know vocabulary are 

    • Adhikarika = the main plot of a dramatic presentation

    • Prasangika = minor plot 

  • Five junctures of dramatic plot are: 

    • Prahamba (beginning) 

      • The objective of the hero for his subsequent actions is revealed here

    • Prayatna (effort) 

      • The hero strives towards his goal

    • Praptisambhava (possibility of attainment)

      • Here, the possibility attaining the objective is suggested

    • Nitya Phalaprapti (certainty of attainment) 

      • The hero faces conflict, and needs conviction to obtain the objective

    • Phalayoga (attainment of goal) 

      • The objective of the protagonist's efforts is finally reached. 

      • All objectives and fulfilments are directly related to 

        • Dharma (right) 

        • Kama (love) 

        • Artha (truth) 

  • Sandhis operate on strict rules. If one sandhi is to be omitted,it should be the fourth one, Nitya Phalaprapti. If two sandhis are to be removed, it should be the third and fourth ones. If three sandhis are to be removed, it must be the second, third and fourth. 

Orchestra:

Nattuvanar:

• Plays the natuvangam.

• Leads the orchestra, and controls the rhythm, synchronizing it with the dancer’s footwork

• Recites theermanams/solkattus for the Nrtta sequences in a dance.

• Laya is indespensible, and nattuvanars must have a solid understanding of it.

  • Can be developed by understanding concepts like talam, shollu, sollukattu, karvai and eduppu

• Skill in natuvangam is important to become a dance teacher, and it takes many years.

• Recent dances without a nattuvanar become less exciting.

• Many people have learned to do natuvangam, and it’s important for dance teachers as it gives them financial control over the performance of their students.

Skills Required to Teach Bharatanatyam:

• Learn to do the thattukol

• Generally do not demonstrate the dance by dancing

• Rhythmic accompaniment and a watchful eye is necessary, as well as a deep understanding of dance to be able to explain it without demonstration.

Mridangam:

• One of he oldest percussion instruments in South India

• Made of teek wood, Indian sandal or kino

• Animal hide covers the two ends, and it’s hollow inside.

• The right side is a permanent black paste made of iron fillings, glue, soot etc.

• The left face does not have this paste, but instead, has a paste of soojee and boiled rice. This difference is to create precision in the sound, and is able to tune the instrument to have different sound ranges and octaves.

• The diameter of the left head is larger than the diameter of the right head by around half an inch.

• The right head’s diameter may vary from 6 and a half to 7 inches

• A well tuned mridangam is a powerful tool in mainting shruti suddha.

• The mridangam is the principal rhythmic accompaniment to the natvangam and the dancers footwork.

Flute:

• The flute is a wind instrument made of bamboo

• Has melodious music, and is also often performed solo

• From the Rigvedha to the Ardhaveda, to the Brahmanas, Upanishads, Shiksa and Puranas, a wind instrument is a key accompaniment to the Veena.

• Vansh or Venu were considered the highest wind instruments, and it played a basic note in order to tune the other instruments.

• Bharata’s Natyashastra contains the first systematic description of the vansh or veenu, but the techniques were quite developed even 2,000 years ago.

Veena:

• The South Indian Veena, also called the Saraswathi Veena, is a string instrument.

• Musicians must use a plectrum (a small triangular piece worn on the fingers of the right hand) to pluck the strings.

• The main resonator is placed on the ground while the left side is held lightly in the left arm to play for a concert.

• This instrument symbolizes Indian ethos and has sociological and cultural connotation and dimensions.

• Saraswathi, the goddess of learning is depicted with a Veena in her hands, so it has a high place in the hierarchy of divinities.

• The Ramayana and Mahabharata both make references to the Veenas.

Violin:

• The violin is a string instrument designed in hollow wood, and can be played solo or as an accompaniment.

• The instrument is held at an angle, resting on the left shoulder, while the musician sits on the floor while playing.

• The bow is held in the right hand and the fingertips on the left hand are used for playing the violin

•  The Veena, flute, and violin accompany the singer, thereby giving richness to the singer's voice

•  An ancient Indian instrument known as the Ravanastra was played with a bow. 

  •  It is associated with Ravana, a character in The Mahabharata.

  •  This instrument is still prevalent in Rajasthan and Gujarat and is considered the predecessor of the violin due to similar sound production techniques.

The Tampura:

• The Tampura (drone) is a string instrument used for sounding the key note (shruti or pitch.)

• It is best used in adding rich harmonics, and is a pleasing instrument to listen to.

• The singer usually enjoys the freedom to select a pitch suited for their voice, and the other members of the orchestra adjust their instruments based on this note.

• During the performance, another artist plays the tampura, but for present convenience, an electric tampura is used.

• The Tampuras are decorated with wooden leaf patters to make it more beautiful.

• Carnatic tempuras usually have wooden bodies, with the most preferred being jackwood.

• Thiruvanathapuram, Mysore, and Vijayanagaram are some of the cities where Carnatic tempuras are usually manufactured.

Vachika Abhinaya:

Whatever is recited on stage is called Pathya. Pathya is divided into two types, Sanskrta or Prakrta. (See “Technical Aspects of Bharatanatyam for groundwork information.) Bharata explains that there are 2 types of words (or padas) found in dramatic presentation; Nibaddha bandas (verses) and Curnas (prose).

Nibaddha pada = a regulated verse where words are set to a specific metre and number of these metric repetitions are specified by type.

Curnas = curnas are prose, and are not metrically arranged, nor have syllable regulations.

Canda: Canda is a metre composed of four feet (divisions), and is the most common form of Nibaddha Banda. Candas are of twenty six types, depending on the number of letters in each foot. This foot can be either even division (sama) semi-even (ardhasama) or uneven (visama).

Twenty six types of Candas:

Number of syllables per foot Name

1. One Ukta

2. Two Atyukta

3. Three Madhya

4. Four Pratishtha

5. Five Supratistha

6. Six Gayatri 7. Seven Usnik

8. Eight Anustup 9. Nine Brhati

10. Ten Panki

11. Eleven Trstup

12. Twelve Jagati

13. Thirteen Atijagati

14.Fourteen Skvari

15. Fifteen Atisaved

16. Sixteen Asti

17. Seventeen Atyasti

18. Eighteen Dhrti

19. Nineteen Atidhrti

20. Twenty Krti

21. Twenty one Prakrti 22. Twenty two Akrti 23. Twenty three Vikrti

24. Twenty four Sankrti

25. Twenty five Atikrti

26. Twenty six Utkrti

***ANYTHING BELOW IS TEXTBOOK NOT NOTES*

A Canda with more syllables per foot is called Malavrtta. Possible combinations of various candas are innumerable. Hence the numbers of Sama, Ardhasama and Visama Vrttas or Candas are

infinite.

Ganas: (Syllable)

In each tri-syllabic Vrtta, the syllables may be long or short. These syllables occurring in a Trikas or tri-syllabic unit are called Ganas.

1. When the first syllable is long, it is called the Bha-Gana.

2. The Ma-Gana has three long syllables.

3. The Ja-Gana has the second as along syllable.

4. The Sa-Gana has a long syllable in the end.

5. The Ra-Gana has a short syllable in the middle.

6. The Ta-Gana has a short last syllable.

7. The Ya-Gana has a short syllable as the first.

8. The Na-Gana has all short syllables.

These eight Ganas are supposed to originate in Brahma.

Yati : (Caesura)

• Yati. The regular stop or cessation of a letter in metric composition is called Yati

Sampat : (Regular couplet)

• If the number of syllables coincides exactly with the metric requirement, it is called Sampat or a complete verse unit.

Nivrt: (Incomplete verse)

• When a syllable is short of the metric requirement, we call the verse Nivrt.

Bhuruk: (Incomplete verse)

• When a syllable is in excess of the metric requirement, we call the verse Bhuruk.

Svarat: (Incomplete verse)

• When the verse has two syllables in excess of the metric requirement, it is called Svarat.

Virat: (Incomplete verse)

• When the verse has two syllables short of the metric requirement, it is called Virat.

Virama: (Stop)

When the verse ends because the meaning ends, it is called Virama. Pada: (Foot)

Derived from the Sanskrit root "pad" or foot, it means a metric foot or part of verse.

Aksara: (Syllable)

Aksara is a complete an distinct syllable. This is of three kinds: Hrasva, Dirgha and Pluta.

Svara: (Musical pitch or accent).

Svara is a musical note and is either Tara (high), Madhya (middle) or Mandra (low).

Metric compositions are differentiated depending on the syllable clusters or different types of Chandas, the stress on syllables and the number of feet in a couplet. Vrittas are of three types depending on the evenness of the metric foot:

1. Samavrittas or even feet:

Here each foot has the same metric composition.

2. Visama or uneven:

If a verse consists of different feet with different metres, then the vritta

is Visama or uneven.

3. Ardhavisama or semi-even :

Here two feet are similar and two dissimilar.

In the Natyasastra, the verses explaining the characteristics of each

vritta themselves serve as examples of those vrittas.

The Samavrittas are as follows:

1. Tanumadhya:

In this Gayatri Chanda, the first two and last two syllables are long.

2. Makaraka Sirsa:

Here there are four Laghu or short syllables in the beginning and two Guru or long syllables in the end.

3. Malati :

rest are long. In this Vritta or poem, the second and fifth syllables are short and the

4. Malani :

short syllable. In Malani, the second syllable in every foot has only one Matra or

5. Uddhata:

Here each foot is of seven syllables and the second, fourth and fifth

are short.

6. Bhramaramalika:

Each seven syllable foot has two long syllables in the beginning and end with the rest being short syllables.

7. Simhalekha :

This has eight syllables and the first, third, fifth, seventh and eighth

are long.

8. Mattacestita:

In this eight syllabic foot, the second, fourth, sixth and eight are long.

9. Vidyulekha :

Here all the eight syllables are long.

10. Cittavilasita:

The fifth, seventh and eighth syllables of this eight-syllabic foot are long.

11. Madhukari:

In each foot of nine syllables, the last three are long in Madhukari.

12. Uutpala Mala:

This is a ten-syllabic foot and the three in the beginning and three in the end are long.

13. Mayurasarini:

The second, fourth, sixth and eight syllables of this ten-syllabic foot are short.

14. Dodhaka:

This foot has eleven syllables and the first, fourth, seventh, tenth and

eleventh are long.

15. Motaka:

The first, second, fifth, eight and eleventh are long in this Traistuba

Chanda of eleven syllables.

16. Indra Vajra :

In this Traistubha Chanda, the third, sixth, seventh and ninth are

short.

17. Upendravajra :

In this eleven-syllabic feet, the first, third, sixth, seventh and ninth are

short.

18. Svagata :

each foot. Here the first, third, seventh and last are long out of eleven syllables in

19. Rathoddhata:

In this eleven-syllabic foot, the first, third, seventh, ninth and last are

long.

20. Saini :

In this eleven-syllabic foot, the sixth and ninth are short.

21. Totaka:

In this foot of twelve syllables, the third, sixth, ninth and last are long.

22. Kumudanibha:

In this twelve-syllabic foot, the first four, eight and tenth are short.

23. Candralekha:

In this Vritta of twelve syllables, the seventh and tenth are short. There is a pause after the fifth syllable.

24. Pramitaksara :

In this twelve syllabic foot, the fifth, ninth and last are long.

25. Vamsastha:

In this twelve syllabic foot, the second, fourth, fifth, eighth, tenth and last are long.

26. Harina Pluta:

In this twelve-syllablic foot, the fourth, seventh, tenth and last are long.

27. Kamadatta:

In this twelve-syllabic foot, the seventh, ninth, eleventh and twelfth are long.

28. Aprameya :

In this foot of twelve syllables, the first, fourth, seventh and tenth are short.

29. Padmini :

In this Jagati Chanda, the second, fifth, eighth and eleventh syllables are short.

30. Putavrtta:

In this foot of twelve syllables, the first six and the tenth are long.

31. Prabhavati:

Here the syllables are thirteen and second, fourth, ninth, eleventh and

the last are long.

32. Praharsini:

two are long and there is Yati at the end of three syllables.

In this Atijagati Chanda, the first three syllables, eighth, tenth and last

33. Mattamayura :

In this Atijagati Chanda, the sixth, seventh, tenth and eleventh

syllables are short.

34. Vasantatilaka:

eight, eleventh and final two syllables are long. This comprises of fourteen syllables of which the first two, the fourth,

35. Asambadha :

In this Sakvari Chanda or fourteen syllabic verse, the first five and last three are long and there is Yati at the end of the fifth syllable.

36. Sarabha:

of Sakvari Chanda are long. Here the first four syllables, the tenth, eleventh and last two syllables

37. Nandimukhi:

This is an Atisakvari Chanda or fifteen syllabic verse wherein the first six syllables, the tenth and the thirteenth are short.

38. Gajavilasita:

This foot has sixteen syllables and the first, fourth, sixth and last are

long.

39. Pravara Lalita:

In this sixteen syllabic verse, the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, the twelfth, thirteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth are long.

40. Sikharini:

This seventeen syllabic verse has many long syllables: the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, twelfth, thirteenth and the seventeenth

syllables are long.

41. Vrsabha Cestita:

The five intial syllables, the eleventh, thirteenth, fourteenth and sixteenth are long in this verse of seventeen syllables.

42. Sridhara :

In Sridhara which is a foot of seventeen syllables, the first four syllables, the tenth, eleventh, thirteenth, fourteenth and the seventeenth are long.

43. Vamsapatra Patita :

In this seventeen syllabic foot, the first, fourth, sixth, tenth and seventeenth are long. The Yati falls on the tenth and the seventh in every ensuing foot.

44. Vilambitagati :

In this foot of seventeen syllables, the second, sixth, eight, twelfth, fourteenth and seventeenth are long.

45. Citralekha:

Here each foot has eighteen syllables and the first five, eleventh, twelfth, fourteenth, fifteenth and seventeenth and eighteenth syllables are long.

46. Sardulavikridita:

In this foot of nineteen syllables, the first three, sixth, eighth, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and nineteenth are

long.

47. Suvadana:

fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth and twentieth are long.

This foot has twenty syllables and the first four, sixth, seventh,

48. Sragdhara :

In this foot of twenty one syllables, the first four, sixth, seventh, fourteenth, fifteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, twentieth and twenty-

first are long.

49. Madraka:

sixteenth, eighteenth and twenty-first are long. In this foot of twenty one syllables, the first, fourth, sixth, tenth, twelfth,

50. Asvalalita:

and twenty-third are long. Each foot has twenty three syllables and the seventeenth, nineteenth

51. Meghamala:

Here each foot has twenty four syllables and the first six, eight, short. eleventh, fourteenth, seventeenth, twentieth and twenty-third are and last are long

52. Kraunca Padi:

. This has twenty five syllables and the first, fourth, sixth, ninth, tenth

53. Bhujanga Vijrmbhita:

In this foot of twenty six syllables, the first eight, nineteenth, twenty-first, twenty-fourth and twenty sixth are long.

Of the Visama vrittas, a few types are prominent:

1. Pathya :

In every foot of eight syllables, the first syllables contains two "Sa" Gannas and two long syllables and the second foot contains one 'sa" Ganna, one "Ra" Ganna, one short and one long syllable.

2. Sarvavisamapathya :

The first foot contains "Ma" Ganna and "Ra" Ganna and two long syllables. The second foot contains "Ya". "Sa" short and long; the third foot contains Ra, Bha, short and long and the fourth Ja, Sa, short

and long.

3. Capala :

In the first and third feet, there are three short syllables after the fourth syllable.

4. Vipula :

If the seventh syllable is short in the second and fourth feet, it is called Vipula.

5. Vanavasika:

Each foot has sixteen matras divided into four sections.

6. Ketumati :

The first and third feet have Ganas "Sa", "Ja", "Sa" and a long syllable and the second and fourth feet have Ganas "Bha", "Ra", "na" and a long syllable.

7. Aparavaktra:

The first and third feet have two "Na" Ganas, "Ra" Gana and a shon and long syllable and the second and fourth feet have "Na" Gana, two

"Ja" Ganas,one "R" Gana and a long syllable.

8. Udgata :

The first foot contains "Sa", "Ja", "Sa" and a short syllable and the second foot has "Na", "Sa", "Ja" and a long syllable; the third foot has "Bha", "Na", "Ja" and a short and long syllable and the fourth has "Sa",

"Ja" and a long syllable.

Arya Metre :

In the Arya metre, the Ganas have four matras. The even feet are called Yuks and the odd feet are called Ayuks. The odd Gana should not have "Ja". The Yati may occur when the second short syllable after the first Gana has been completed or after the first syllable or after the fifth Gana. The Arya Metre has been classified into five types

a. Pathya: Here the Yati occurs after three Ganas.

b. Vipula: Here there is no Yati.

c. Capala: The second and fourth Ganas have a long syllable in the middle in both halves of the vritta.

d. Mukha Capala: The first half of the verse has the characteristics of Capala.

e. Jaghana Capala: The second half of the verse has the characteristics of Capala.

Kavyalakshana (Characteristics and ornamentation of dramatic poetry): There are thirty six characteristics of dramatic composition. These are

1. Bhusana or ornateness:

This comprises of many figures of speech and gunas that indirectly

project meanings.

2. AksaraSanghata or compactness:

Here meaning is conveyed in a succinct manner through double entendre or puns. The literal meaning of AksaraSanghata is a cluster

of syllables.

3. Sobha or brilliance:

An object not well-known is compared with a well-known object. This method of evoking meaning is Sobha.

4. Udaharana or parallelism:

Here words denoting similar circumstances are used to suggest something else.

5. Hetu or causation :

Pleasing words are used in order to suggest the required meaning.

6. Samsaya or hesitation:

Here a sentence is brought to a close even before the complete meaning has been suggested.

7. Drstanta or precedent:

Here reasoning by use of previous example or precedent is used to present a case.

8. Prapti or attainment:

This is the aim of every drama.

Here the complete meaning is inferred through various dramatic methods.

9. Abhipriya or fancy:

A new object or subject is conceived through resemblance.

10. Nidarsana or unfavorable precedent:

Here a well-known example is used to reject an idea or suggestion.

11. Nirukta or explanation:

Here a suggestion is strengthened through convincing explanations.

12. Siddhi or successful achievement:

Names of important persons are used for the purpose of adding

conviction.

13. Visesana or distinction:

A distinguishing attribute is mentioned in order to strengthen a case.

14. Gunatipata or opposition to virtue :

Virtues are enumerated in order to convey the opposite impression.

15. Atisaya or excellence :

A quality that makes the subject excellent is mentioned.

16. Tulya Tarka or different:

Here there is a use of metaphors or similar to bring out a different

idea.

17. Padoccaya or multiple predication:

Here various groups of words are brought together to convey an idea.

18. Dista or description:

When an objected is described in harmony with time, place and form it

is called Dista.

19. Upadista or utterance:

The statement made on the basis of the Sastras in order to convince learned people is Upadista.

20. Vicara or deliberation:

The statement establishing something not perceived but which is in harmony with the meaning expressed is Vicara.

21. Viprayaya or inversion : Due to doubt the course of action is changed.

22. Bhramsa or lapse: This is a deviation from the intended words.

23. Anunya or imploration:

Here pleasing words are used to placate two people with different points of view.

24. Mala or garland :

When many deeds are glorified by learned men, it is called Mala.

When another person's suggestion is acted upon with grace and charm, it is called Daksinya.

25. Daksinya or clever manners. :

26. Garhana or censure:

Faults are mentioned and presented as merits or merits are belittled

and mentioned as faults.

27. Arthapati or presumption: When something is mentioned with sweet language and another thing is implied it is called Arthapati.

28. Prasiddhi or celebrity:

Here words enumerate the exploits of a hero.

29. Prccha or interrogation:

Here a person addresses and questions common practice.

30. Sarupya or identity:

The discovery of an identity through what is seen or heard causes

excitement here.

31. Manoratha or indirect expression of desire:

Here a person seems to refer to someone else's wishes but is expressing his or her own.

32. Lesa or wit:

Words are addressed here cleverly by expert disputants.

33. Samksepa or concealment:

Here the guiltless takes on the faults of another.

34. Gunakirtana or enumeration of good qualities:

Here a single person is credited with all the good virtues.

35. Anukta Siddhi or unattained achievement:

Here the whole subject is comprehended through partial disclosure.

36. Priyokti or pleasing utterance:

This is veneration of a venerable person.

Alamkaras:

There are four alamkaras or figures of speech that are prominent in

poetry.

1. Upama:

This is a simile where there is a comparison between two dissimilar things to bring out their common feature with respect to form or attribute. This may be a comparison between a) one and another b) one with many c) many with one or d) many with many. Examples: "Your face is like the moon." "The elephants are like clouds."

Upama is further classified into five types depending on the mood of the statement and the kind of comparison:

a. Prasamsa or praise:

Here the comparison is made in praise of the person or thing compared.

b. Ninda or censure:

Here the comparison is made to censure or disapprove of a person or act.

c. Kalpita or conceit:

Here the comparison made is very prominent in the sentence.

d. Sadrsi or similarity that brings out uniqueness: Here the comparison is made to illustrate a unique or rare act.

e. Kincitsadrsi or partial likeness:

Here the subject is compared in part with something else.

2. Dipaka or condensed expression:

Here a succinct expression is used to connote various meanings in a

compact way.

3. Rupaka or metaphor:

This is an implied simile or a comparison made through suggestion.

4. Yamaka or alliteration:

This repetition can be of ten different types:

Repetition of vowels and consonants are characteristic of Yamaka.

a. Padanta Yamaka:

When the syllables are the same at the end of all four feet of a couplet,

we have Padanta Yamaka.

b. Kanci Yamaka:

At the beginning and end of every foot, two similar words are

repeated.

c. Samudga Yamaka:

Here half the verse is repeated but with a different meaning.

d. Vikranta Yamaka:

Here two similar feet are separated by one dissimilar foot.

e. Cakravala Yamaka:

If a word or syllable at the end of one foot is repeated at the beginning

of the next, we have Cakravala Yamaka.

f. Sandasta Yamaka:

Two words at the beginning of each foot are similar.

g. Padadi Yamaka:

When the same word occurs at the beginning of each foot, we have

Padadi Yamaka.

h. Amredita Yamaka:

Here the word ending each foot is repeated.

i. Catu Vyavasita Yamaka:

All the feet of the verse contain the same words though the meaning

many be different.

j. Mala Yamaka:

Here the same consonant recurs with different vowels many times.

Gunas and Dosas:

Gunas are the good attributes in a poetic composition and these are ten in number:

1. Slesa or synthesis where the word combinations are synchronous with the meaning.

2. Prasada or perspicuity is the use of lucid language to convey ideas.

3. Samata is smoothness that derives from a composition that does not use too many compounded words or words incapable of expressing ideas clearly.

4. Samadhi or concentration is the expert use of language to convey an idea in a way that delights the critic or connoisseur.

5.  Madhurya or sweetness is an attribute of verse that sounds very pleasant to the ear when recited again and again.

6. Ojas or grandeur occurs in compositions consisting of various compound words that are exalted in meaning and agreeable in sound.