Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

a. Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

b. Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., giving candy for doing homework).

c. Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., turning off a loud alarm when you get out of bed).

d. Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., giving a speeding ticket to reduce speeding).

e. Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking away a phone for misbehavior).

f. Limitations of Punishment

Can lead to fear, aggression, or avoidance
Does not teach what behavior should replace the undesired one
May be temporary or situation-specific

g. Skinner Box

A chamber used by B.F. Skinner to study operant conditioning with animals, often containing a lever or button for the animal to press to receive reinforcement.

h. Superstitious Behavior

Behavior that is accidentally reinforced, leading the organism to believe it caused the reinforcement (e.g., lucky socks).

i. Shaping

Gradually guiding behavior toward a desired goal by reinforcing successive approximations of the behavior.

j. Primary Reinforcer

A naturally reinforcing stimulus, such as food, water, or warmth—things that satisfy biological needs.

k. Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money, praise).

l. Cognitive Map

A mental representation of one’s physical environment (e.g., rats learning the layout of a maze).

m. Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

n. Overjustification Effect

When an external reward diminishes intrinsic motivation to perform a task (e.g., being paid to draw reduces enjoyment in drawing).

o. Premack Principle

A more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity (e.g., "You can watch TV after doing homework").

p. Cognitive Processes of Operant Conditioning

Internal mental processes such as expectations and predictability can influence how organisms learn and respond to consequences.

q. Biological Predispositions of Operant Conditioning

Organisms are biologically inclined to learn some behaviors more easily than others (e.g., pigs rooting for food even when trained to do otherwise).

r. Schedules of Reinforcement

Rules for how and when reinforcement is delivered.

i. Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs (leads to rapid learning, but rapid extinction).

ii. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time—slower acquisition, more resistance to extinction.

1. Fixed-Ratio
Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., reward after every 5th response).
2. Variable-Ratio
Reinforcement after a varying number of responses (e.g., slot machines)—very resistant to extinction.
3. Fixed-Interval
Reinforcement after a set amount of time (e.g., paycheck every 2 weeks).
4. Variable-Interval
Reinforcement at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., checking for a text message).

Observational Learning

Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others.

a. Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

i. Prosocial Behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior (e.g., helping others, volunteering).

ii. Antisocial Behavior

Negative, harmful behavior (e.g., aggression, lying).

b. Mirror Neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing others doing so—enable imitation and empathy.

c. Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study

A famous experiment showing that children who observed an adult acting aggressively toward a Bobo doll were more likely to also act aggressively, demonstrating the power of observational learning and modeling.