Culture & Biases

Cultural norms are shared rules and guidelines within a community that dictate appropriate and acceptable behaviors in society.

example: being polite to elders

Expectations are the anticipated behaviors and roles individuals are expected to fulfill based on cultural norms.

Circumstances refer to the situations in which individuals find themselves in, often including socio economic, historical, and the persons geographical location.

WE ARE ALWAYS INFLUENCED BY OUTSIDE FACTORS

Confirmation Bias is the tendency to seek out information that aligns with our point of view. Hindsight. (ignore information that challenges what we believe)

Hindsight Bias tendency to think that one could have anticipated the outcome of an event or experiment after it has already happened. (I knew it all along)

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Introduction to Correlation

• Explain what it means when we say two things are correlated, and describe positive and negative correlations. 

• Another technique available to researchers is to collect and examine correlational data.

Correlation: Correlation refers to a statistical ___relationship____ between two variables. When two things are correlated, changes in one variable are associated with changes in another.

Positive Correlation: A positive correlation means that as one variable increases, the other also increases. 

• For example, as hours of study increase, grades tend to increase.

Negative Correlation: A negative correlation means that as one variable increases_, the other decreases_. 

• For example, as the number of hours spent watching TV increases, grades tend to decrease.

Quick  Check!

Positive or Negative correlation?

1. As the number of class absences increases, test scores tend to decrease.

2. As the number of books read increases, the size of a person's vocabulary tends to increase.

3. As screen time (e.g., watching TV or using a computer) increases, the amount of physical activity tends to decrease.

4. The relationship between a person’s height and the type of music they enjoy.

5. Higher consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with better overall health.

6. The more time people spend on social media, the larger their number of online friends tends to be.

7. As outdoor temperature increases, sales of hot beverages tend to decrease.

Correlation Coefficient: This is a numerical value that represents the ___strength____ and direction_ of a correlation. It ranges from -1 to +1. A value close to +1 indicates a strong positive correlation, a value close to -1 indicates a strong negitive_ correlation, and a value around 0 indicates no correlation.

Scatterplot: A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables. Each point on the scatterplot represents an observation. The pattern of the points reveals the type and ___strength___ of the correlation.

Quick Check!

1. What does it mean to say that the correlation coefficient is about 0.00?  uncorrelated

2. Which of the following pairs of variables is likely to have an r value between 0.00 and −1.00?

   1. height and IQ scores

   2. studying and GPA

   3. standard deviation and measures of central tendency

   4. smoking and life span

3. Identify a variable you think might negatively correlate with GPA. Explain your answer.

I would say playing more games as when you are playing games instead of studying or doing work it will make you do worse.

Illusory Correlations and Regression Toward the Mean

Remember, the discovery of a correlation does not prove that a cause-and-effect relationship exists. Results from correlational studies can tell us that two variables are related, but not why they are related.

Correlations cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships, but they are useful for making predictions_.

Illusory Correlation: This occurs when people perceive a relationship between two variables even when none exist. For example, believing that a full moon causes strange behavior.

Regression Toward the Mean: This is the tendency for extreme_ or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward the average. 

• For instance, if a student scores exceptionally high on one test, their next score is likely to be closer to their average performance.

Quick Check!

1. A  correlation exists when one variable increases while another variable decreases.

2. If variable A is correlated with variable B, what are the three possibilities in terms of cause and effect?

• A influences B

• B influences A

• Confounding variable influencing both A and B

3. Which of the following is true about the nature of correlations?

   1. Positive correlations represent cause-and-effect relationships, but negative correlations do not.

   2. Negative correlations represent cause-and-effect relationships, but positive correlations do not.

   3. All correlations represent cause-and-effect relationships.

   4. Correlations may represent cause-and-effect relationships, but alone they don’t provide proof of cause and effect.

4. What are correlations useful for?

   1. Making predictions

   2. Eliminating bias

   3. In-depth studies of individuals

   4. Establishing cause and effect

Experimental vs Non-Experimental Research

So far all of the research methods we have covered have been non-experimental.

Non-Experimental Methodology: A research method that involves observing and measuring variables without manipulating them, focusing on relationships and correlations between variables.

Experimental Research

The experiment is the only method that allows us to draw conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships. Because experiments require researchers to control the things that can change—the variables—in a study, the chances of isolating the variable causing a particular effect are much greater.

Experimental Methodology: A research method where the researcher manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect on another variable, allowing for cause-and-effect relationships to be established.

• Independent Variable (IV):The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter.

• Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured to see how it is affected by changes in the IV.

How to determine the type of research design:

Look for keywords that indicate experimental research, such as "_independent variable," "_random__ assignment," or "__controlled___experiment."

If you don't see any keywords for experimental research, then the study is likely non-experimental. 

Which Design is It?

Instructions: Read the following research study descriptions carefully. For each study:

Identify whether the study is experimental or non-experimental.

If experimental:

• Identify the independent variable (what the researcher manipulates)

• Identify the dependent variable (what the researcher measures)

If non-experimental:

• Identify the type of non-experimental design used (case study, correlational study, meta-analysis, naturalistic observation)

Confounding Variable: An   factor that could influence the results of an experiment, making it difficult to establish a clear cause-and-effect relationship.

Watch out for confounding variables in all research - not just experiments!

Experimental Groups and Procedures

Experimental Group: The group in an experiment that recives the treatment or maipulation.

Control Group: The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, allowing researchers to compare_ results and draw conclusions about the treatment’s effect.

Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group to ensure that each group is similar before the treatment is applied.

• Importance: This minimizes pre existing differences between the groups, ensuring that any observed effects are due to the manipulation of the IV rather than other factors.

Single-Blind Procedure: Participate do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-Blind Procedure: Neither Participants_ nor reasearchers know who is in the experimental or control group.

• Importance: Blinding reduces bias__ and prevents expectations_ from influencing the results.

Placebo: A harmless, inactive ___substances___ or teatment_ given to the control group to compare its effects with those of the actual treatment.

• Example: A sugar pill in a drug trial.

• Why It’s Important: Allows for comparison against the actual treatment

Placebo Effect: The phenomenon where participants experience changes simply because they believe_ they are receiving a treatment.

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Hypothesis: A testable claim that need to be Falsifiable( whether it is true or false)

Operational definition: Precise parameters or qualification. This is necessary for replication.

Outcomes: Reliable not Valid, Unreliable & Not Valid, Reliable & Valid

Reliability: Consistent same results over and over again

Validity: Accurate result that you expect to happen

Ex. bathroom scale giving you the wrong number but it is still reliable because its always the wrong weight in the same spot.

Population: Any person that could be asked to participate in the study.

Sample: Subset of the population ( usually cant use the entire population) It should be able to match the entire size of the population to make sure it is valid and not biased.

• Random: everyone has equal chance

• Representative: Represents everyone of the population

• Generalizability: able to generalize it to the population as a whole

Convenience Sample: Sampling the people that are easy to access

Sampling Bias: when the research selects people that will give them the answer they want.

Qualitative: non numerical

Quantitative: numerical

Independent variable: this is the cause

Dependent variable: this is the effect

Normal vs. Skewed Distribution:

Statistical Significance:  The degree to which you are sure that the dependent variable 

1.1 Interaction of Heredity and Environment

1. What is the nature vs. nurture debate and how does it relate to psychology?

The nature vs. nurture debate is about whether human behavior is determined by genetics (nature) or by environment and experience (nurture). Psychologists study this to understand which has a greater influence on development and behavior. Nature refers to biological inheritance, while nurture involves life experiences and upbringing.

2. How do evolutionary psychologists explain behavior?

Evolutionary psychologists believe that behavior is shaped by the need for survival and reproduction. They argue that behaviors seen today have been passed down because they were advantageous for survival in the past. For example, fear of dangerous animals may be an instinct inherited from ancestors who needed to avoid predators to survive.

3. Apply the following concepts to the study of psychology.

a. Natural Selection:
Natural selection is the process where individuals with traits that help them survive and reproduce are more likely to pass on their genes. In psychology, this concept helps explain why certain behaviors (like cooperation or aggression) may have evolved because they contributed to survival.

b. Survival of the Fittest:
"Survival of the fittest" refers to the idea that only the strongest individuals in a population will survive and reproduce. In psychology, this can help explain why certain mental and emotional traits may have been favored by evolution.

c. Eugenics:
Eugenics is the controversial idea of improving the genetic quality of the human population by selectively breeding for desirable traits. It has a dark history, as it was misused to justify discrimination and human rights abuses.

4. How can each of the following research studies be used as evidence to support nature/nurture?

a. Twin Studies:
Twin studies help psychologists understand how much genetics (nature) vs. environment (nurture) contributes to traits like intelligence or personality. By comparing identical twins (who share 100% of their genes) to fraternal twins (who share 50% of their genes), researchers can separate genetic factors from environmental ones.

b. Adoption Studies:
Adoption studies examine how adopted children compare to both their biological and adoptive parents. If they are more similar to their biological parents, it suggests genetics play a bigger role; if they resemble their adoptive parents more, environment is considered more influential.

c. Family Studies:
Family studies look at how traits run in families. If a trait (like a mental disorder) is common among biologically related family members, it suggests a genetic influence. However, shared family environments are also considered, making these studies useful for studying both nature and nurture.

1.2 Overview of the Nervous System

5. Note the parts and functions of each division of the nervous system.

a. Central Nervous System (CNS):
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. Its main role is to process information and coordinate activities across the body. The brain is responsible for interpreting sensory information and making decisions, while the spinal cord is the pathway for messages between the brain and the rest of the body.

b. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
The PNS includes all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. Its main job is to connect the CNS to the rest of the body. It has two main divisions: the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.

i. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):
The ANS controls involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing. It has two main subdivisions:

• Parasympathetic Nervous System: This part is responsible for "rest and digest" functions. It helps conserve energy, slows the heart rate, and increases digestion.

• Sympathetic Nervous System: This is the "fight or flight" system. It prepares the body to respond to stressful or dangerous situations by increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and slowing digestion.

ii. Somatic Nervous System:
The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements of the body by sending signals from the CNS to the muscles. It is also involved in processing sensory information from external stimuli, like touch and pain.

6. How does each division of the autonomic nervous system act on the body?

7. Explain the purpose of the following components of the nervous system.

a. Motor Neurons:
Motor neurons transmit signals from the CNS to muscles and glands, allowing for movement and action.

b. Sensory Neurons:
Sensory neurons carry signals from sensory receptors (like skin, eyes, or ears) to the CNS, helping the body process external stimuli.

c. Interneurons:
Interneurons are found within the CNS and act as a link between sensory and motor neurons. They help interpret sensory input and create appropriate motor responses.

d. Reflex Arc:
A reflex arc is the neural pathway involved in an automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus, like pulling your hand away from a hot object. The reflex arc allows for a quicker reaction by bypassing the brain and instead using the spinal cord for immediate response.

Video Notes

Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Definition: The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for processing information and coordinating bodily functions.

• Function:

  • Brain: The control center for thoughts, emotions, memory, and sensory processing. It sends commands to the body.

  • Spinal Cord: Connects the brain to the peripheral nervous system, serving as a highway for signals between the brain and the rest of the body.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• Definition: The PNS includes all the nerves that branch out from the spinal cord and extend to the rest of the body.

• Function: Carries signals between the CNS and the body.

• Subdivisions:

  • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements (e.g., moving your arm).

  • Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary actions (e.g., heart rate, digestion).

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

• Subdivisions:

  • Sympathetic Nervous System:

    • Activates the body's "fight or flight" response.

    • Prepares the body for stressful situations by increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and slowing digestion.

  • Parasympathetic Nervous System:

    • Controls the "rest and digest" functions.

    • Promotes relaxation by slowing the heart rate, constricting pupils, and promoting digestion.

Reflex Arc

• Definition: The reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls an automatic response to a stimulus without conscious thought.

• Components:

  • Sensory Neurons: Carry the stimulus to the CNS.

  • Interneurons: Process the information and send signals to motor neurons.

  • Motor Neurons: Trigger a response, such as pulling your hand away from a hot stove.

• Purpose: Reflex arcs allow the body to respond quickly to harmful stimuli, minimizing damage.

Neurons

• Motor Neurons: Send messages from the CNS to muscles and glands, allowing for movement.

• Sensory Neurons: Bring information from sensory receptors (like skin, eyes) to the CNS.

• Interneurons: Found in the CNS, they process sensory input and decide how to respond.

Communication in the Nervous System

• Neurons communicate through electrical impulses and chemical signals (neurotransmitters).

  • Action Potential: An electrical charge that travels down a neuron’s axon, triggering the release of neurotransmitters.

  • Synapse: The gap between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released to send a signal to the next neuron.

Key Terms to Remember:

• CNS vs. PNS: CNS processes and sends out signals; PNS delivers these signals to and from the body.

• Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic: Sympathetic prepares the body for stress; parasympathetic calms it down.

• Reflex Arc: Involves a quick, automatic response without brain involvement.

Nature

Heredity: The traits given to you at birth.

• Genetic Predisposition

Nurture

Environmental Factors: 

• Who you socialize with

• What your mom did while you were in the womb

1.3 The Neuron and Neural Firing

What is a neuron?

A neuron is a cell in the nervous system that sends and receives information through electrical and chemical signals.

Parts of a Neuron and Their Functions:

• Dendrite: Receives signals from other neurons.

• Soma (Cell Body): Maintains the cell and processes incoming signals.

• Axon: Sends electrical signals away from the soma to other neurons or muscles.

• Axon Terminals/Terminal Buttons: Release neurotransmitters to send signals to the next neuron.

• Myelin Sheath: Insulates the axon to speed up signal transmission.

• Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin that help the signal jump quickly along the axon.

• Schwann Cells: Produce the myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system.

• Glial Cells: Support and protect neurons.

Process of Neural Transmission:

Neural transmission involves an electrical impulse traveling down the axon and releasing neurotransmitters at the axon terminals, which pass the signal to the next neuron across the synapse.

Key Aspects of Neural Transmission:

• Threshold: The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

• Action Potential: The electrical charge that travels down the axon.

• Resting Potential: The neuron’s state when not firing a signal.

• Refractory Period: The brief time after a neuron fires when it cannot fire again.

• All-or-Nothing Principle: A neuron either fires completely or not at all.

• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that transmit signals across the synapse.

• Synapse/Synaptic Cleft: The gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

• Reuptake: The process of neurotransmitters being reabsorbed after transmitting a signal.

Disorders from Nervous System Disruptions:

• Multiple Sclerosis (MS): Caused by damage to the myelin sheath, slowing neural signals.

• Myasthenia Gravis: A disorder where communication between nerves and muscles is disrupted, leading to muscle weakness.

Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters:

• Excitatory: Promote action potentials (e.g., glutamate).

• Inhibitory: Prevent action potentials (e.g., GABA).

Neurotransmitter Chart:

How the Endocrine System Interacts with the Nervous System:

The endocrine system releases hormones into the bloodstream, interacting with the nervous system by controlling long-term processes like growth and metabolism. Hormones can influence behavior, mood, and cognition.

Difference Between Hormones and Neurotransmitters:

• Hormones: Released into the bloodstream, affecting distant parts of the body slowly.

• Neurotransmitters: Work quickly by transmitting signals between neurons across synapses.

Endocrine System Chart:

How Drugs Alter Neurotransmitters:

Drugs can mimic or block neurotransmitters, alter their release, or affect reuptake, changing how signals are sent between neurons.

• Agonists: Mimic neurotransmitters (e.g., morphine mimics endorphins).

• Antagonists: Block neurotransmitters (e.g., naloxone blocks opioids).

• Reuptake Inhibitors: Prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their effect (e.g., SSRIs for depression).

Psychoactive Drugs and Their Impact:

Addiction, Tolerance, and Withdrawal:

• Addiction: Compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences.

• Tolerance: Needing more of the drug to achieve the same effect.

• Withdrawal: Physical and mental symptoms that occur when stopping the drug.

1.4 The Brain

Structures and Functions of the Brain:

• Brain Stem: Controls basic life functions like heartbeat and breathing.

• Medulla: Regulates breathing and heart rate.

• Reticular Formation: Controls alertness and arousal.

• Cerebellum: Coordinates balance and movement.

• Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the cortex.

• Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

• Hippocampus: Key for memory formation.

• Amygdala: Involved in emotions like fear and aggression.

• Pituitary Gland: Master gland controlling hormone release.

• Corpus Callosum: Connects the two brain hemispheres.

• Frontal Lobe: Involved in decision-making, planning, and personality.

  • Prefrontal Cortex: Handles complex thinking and problem-solving.

  • Broca’s Area: Speech production.

  • Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movement.

• Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory information.

  • Somatosensory Cortex: Registers touch and body position.

• Temporal Lobe: Processes auditory information.

  • Wernicke’s Area: Involved in language comprehension.

• Occipital Lobe: Processes visual information.

Brain Plasticity and Neurogenesis:

• Neurogenesis: The creation of new neurons.

• Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt, especially after injury.

Studying the Brain:

• Lesion: Damaging part of the brain to study its function.

• EEG: Measures electrical activity in the brain.

• MRI: Produces detailed images of brain structures.

• fMRI: Shows brain activity by measuring changes in blood flow.

Split Brain:

A procedure that cuts the corpus callosum to reduce seizures. It results in the two brain hemispheres not communicating, revealing differences in their functions.

Left vs. Right Hemisphere:

• Left Hemisphere: Language, logic, analytical thinking.

• Right Hemisphere: Creativity, spatial abilities, recognizing faces.

Contralateral Control:

Each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body (left hemisphere controls the right side, and same for the other side).

1.5 Sleep

Consciousness: The awareness of ourselves and our environment. Early psychology focused on consciousness through introspection (Wundt), but behaviorists later ignored it, focusing on observable behaviors. In the mid-20th century, the cognitive revolution revived interest, studying consciousness in terms of cognition and neuroscience, including sleep and altered states.

Circadian Rhythm

Circadian Rhythm: A 24-hour cycle that regulates sleep, body temperature, and other physiological processes, controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus. It's influenced by light, temperature, and can be disrupted by factors like jet lag or shift work.

Jet Lag: A disruption in the circadian rhythm caused by traveling across time zones, resulting in fatigue, confusion, and difficulty sleeping.

NREM vs. REM Sleep

• NREM Sleep: Non-Rapid Eye Movement sleep, consisting of three stages (NREM-1, NREM-2, NREM-3). It's associated with physical rest and slower brain activity.

• REM Sleep: Rapid Eye Movement sleep, where most dreams occur. The brain is highly active, similar to when awake, but the body is paralyzed to prevent movement.

Stages of Sleep

Theories of Dreaming

• Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep.

• Memory Consolidation Theory: Dreams help process and store information and memories from the day, organizing learning.

Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia: Persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep, leading to daytime fatigue and impaired concentration.

• Narcolepsy: A disorder where individuals experience sudden and uncontrollable sleep attacks, often falling directly into REM sleep.

• Sleep Apnea: A disorder where breathing repeatedly stops during sleep, causing frequent awakenings and poor quality sleep.

• REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: When the normal paralysis during REM sleep does not occur, causing individuals to act out their dreams.

• Somnambulism (Sleepwalking): Walking or performing tasks during deep NREM-3 sleep, typically without memory of the activity.

1.6 Sensation

Slide Notes

Key Concepts

1. Sensation: The process by which we receive information from the environment

2. Perception: The interpretation of information from the environment so that we can identify its meaning.

Transduction: The process of converting energy of a stimulus into neural activity

1. Stimulus Energy

1. Light, sound, smell, taste, touch

2. Sensory Receptors

   1. Eyes,ears,nose,tongue,skin

3. Neural Impulses

4. Brain

   1. Visual, auditory, olfactory, areas

Thresholds: amount that a neuron needs to trigger an impulse

1. All or nothing

   1. If its not strong enough to trigger impulse nothing happens

Absolute Threshold: The minimum amount of energy needed to produce sensation more than 50% of the time. (will you feel it 50 percent of the time)

Sensory Adaptation: When sensory receptor cells are constantly stimulated, they undergo a loss of sensitivity to stimuli. ( ignore that your room smells bad because you get used to it)

Just Notable Difference: The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be consistently and accurately detected 50% of the time. (difference threshold)

Weber’s Law: The relationship between actual and perceived differences in stimulus intensity.

1. Sensations:

   1. Brightness

   2. Weight

   3. Pitch

   4. Odor

   5. Saltiness of Taste

Sensory Interaction: The process by which our five senses work with and influence each other.

Synesthesia: When your brain routes sensory information through multiple unrelated senses, causing you to experience more than one sense simultaneously.

The Eye: 

Accommodation: Process of focusing images onto the retina by the lenses.

Cornea: the eyes protective layer

Iris: colored ring of muscle tissue

Lens: transparent structure which changes shape to focus 

Optic nerve: carries the neural impulses to the brain

Information Processing in the Eye:

1. Rods: retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, are sensitive to movement and are necessary for peripheral vision

2. Cones: retinal receptors concentrated near the center of the retina responsible for daylight/color vision

3. Blind Spot: the point at which the optic nerve exits the eye so there is an absence of receptor cells 

4. Fovea: the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster → where visual acuity is greatest

5. Ganglion cells: final output neurons of the retina which collects the electrical messages concerning the visual signal from the two layers of nerve cells preceding it 

6. Bipolar cells: transport information from rods and cones to ganglion cells

Normal Vision

Nearsightedness: Myopia

Farsightedness: Hyperopia

Video Notes:

Sensation: The process by which we receive information from the environment

Perception: The interpretation of information from the environment so that we can identify its meaning.

Absolute Threshold: The smallest amount of stimulus you can feel 50 percent of the time

Subliminal Message: When a stimulus does not cross the absolute threshold

Trichromatic theory:  There are 3 color receptors that stimulate brain activity and sight

Ganglion, Bipolar, Rods, and Cones

Opponent Process theory: says that color vision depends on three sets of opposing retinal process- red-green, blue-yellow, white-black (afterimage activity)

Cones and Wavelengths: Red-Long , Green-Medium , Blue-Short

Color Processing theory: the mind can only register the presence of one color of a pair at a time because the two colors oppose one another

Prosopagnosia: an impairment in the recognition of facial identity

Higher Pitch: more waves passing through a point per second

Lower Pitch: smaller amplitude 

Place theory: the hair cells and nerve fibers of the cochlea are divided into different regions that detect specific sound frequencies. The areas which are closest to the opening of the cochlea respond to higher tones, while the areas at the opposite end of the cochlea respond to lower tones.

Frequency Theory: We hear different pitches

Volley Theory: neural cells operating in rapid succession they can achieve a combines frequency of 1000

Conduction deafness: results from damage to mechanical system

Sensorineural Deafness: damage auditory nerve or coliea

2.1a Perception (cognition)

Sensation: the process of detecting,converting and transmitting raw sensory information from external and internal environments to the brain

Perception:  the process of selecting organizing and interpreting sensory information

Processing:

1. TOP DOWN PROCESSING guided by higher level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

2. BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

   1. Individual to full

Perceptual Interpretation:

Schema: a collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception ,interpretation, or problem solving.

VULNERABILITY TO ILLUSION

• Top-Down Processing:

  • it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.

PERCEPTUAL SET

• Perceptual set is a readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way; the perceptual set creates bias in how someone interprets sensory input; Out tendency to perceive some parts of sensory data and ignore others

CONTEXT

• the context in which something appears guides people's perceptual hypotheses; 

(Ex- TAE CHT- the power of typographical errors pass unobserved); it an also occur in reversible figures- where the same picture can result in different perceptions

INFLUENCE OF CULTURE & EXPERIENCE

• Unlike people in Western nations, the Zulus (largest ethnic group of southern Africa) live in a culture where straight lines and right angles are scarce. Thus, they are not affected by such phenomena as the Müller-Lyer illusion nearly as much as people raised in environments that abound with rectangular structures.

SELECTIVE ATTENTION

• The ability to focus on one stimulus while excluding other stimuli that are present

INATTENTIONAL BLINDNESS: The failure to notice the existence of an unexpected item

• When people focus on a task that demands their attention, they often fail to notice unexpected objects and events that occur in full view. This phenomenon is known as "inattentional blindness" because people typically do not consciously perceive aspects of their world that fall outside of the focus of their attention. 

COCKTAIL PARTY EFFECT: the ability to focus one's

listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations and

background noises

• In noisy places you are able to hear what's important

• Example: in a group but you only hear one person

Change Blindness: (failure to notice obvious change)

2.1a Visual Perception

Depth perception: The ability to perceive the relative distance of objects in one's visual field.

MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES:  Require only one eye to inform the visual system about the depth of a target or its distance from the observer.

1. Relative Clarity: Objects that appear sharp, clear, and detailed are seen as closer than more hazy objects.

2. Relative Size: If separate objects are expected to be of the same size, the larger ones are seen as closer.

3. Texture Gradient : The progressive decline in the resolution of textures as the viewer moves away from them.

4. Linear Perspective: Thus, two objects appear closer together as the distance from them increases and appear to converge on the horizon.

5. Interposition: Occurring when two objects are in the same line of vision and the closer object, which is fully in view, partly conceals the farther object.

BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES: Require integration of information from the two eyes and include signals about the convergence of the eyes and retinal disparity.

1. Retinal Disparity: binocular - slight differences between left and right retinal images 

• Brain combines both images in the left and right visual images

2. Convergence: The rotation of the two eyes inward toward a light source so that the image falls on corresponding points on the foveas.

Apparent Movement: Apparent movement can be visually perceived even when objects are not actually moving.

1. Perceptual Constancies:

   1. Size constancy: Perceived size of an object remains constant despite changes in the size of the retinal image of that object.

   2. Shape constancy: Perceived shape of an object remains constant despite changes in the shape of the retinal image of that object.

   3. Brightness: the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same brightness under different conditions of illumination. For example, a piece of white paper has a similar brightness in daylight as it does at dusk, even though the energy it reflects may be quite different. 

   4. Color: the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same color under different conditions of illumination. For example, a red apple will be perceived as red in well or poorly illuminated surroundings.

   5. Stroboscopic movement: The apparent motion of a series of separate stimuli occurring in close consecutive order, as in motion pictures.

   6. Phi phenomenon: Apparent motion resulting from an orderly sequence of stimuli (such as lights flashed in rapid succession a short distance apart on a sign) without any actual motion being presented to the eye 

2.8a Perception

INTELLIGENCE IS DEFINED AS:  the mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

INTELLIGENCE is NOT an achievement. It does not require knowledge and skills gained from experience.

INTELLIGENCE IS A CONSTRUCT: A construct is like a concept or hypothetical.  We can’t REALLY OBSERVE IT, so it’s difficult to measure.  researchers in psychology don’t even agree on what it is.  That is why we have multiple theories about intelligence

g-factor

• Early theorists thought that intelligence was a single factor called general intelligence or G-Factor, and this common factor underlies all intelligent behavior.   essentially believing if you are intelligent in one area, you are intelligent in all areas.

• criticism: it doesn’t account for savant syndrome.A savant is someone exceptionally gifted in one area, but considered of low intelligence in most other areas.

FIRST MODERN TEST

• In the early 20th Century France passed a law that all children should attend school & school was set up based on ages. But some children didn’t have any prior schooling

• Binet & Simon created a test for Mental Age to determine what a child of a particular chronological age should know

• Ex: a child who is age 5 of average intelligence should receive a mental age of 5. A child of 5 who scores lower than his peers might have a mental age of 3

• It was used to predict how well children could handle their school work and to determine if they would need extra help.

stanford-binet test

Created by Lewis Terman Because The Binet test didn’t work for American kids.

He re-worked the test and renamed it the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

USED THIS formula for IQ 

IQ TESTS

PSYCHometric psychologists  statistically analyze the results from intelligence and other types of tests (like personality inventories) that attempt to measure Psychological constructs.

Perception

• Bottom-Up Processing: Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. Begins with individual elements to the whole.

• Top-Down Processing: Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

Principles of Perception

• Schema (In Perception): Cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.

• Perceptual Set: A readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way.

• Context Effects: The context in which something appears guides people's perceptual hypotheses.

• Gestalt Psychology: An approach that emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts.

Depth Perception

• Monocular and Binocular Cues: Cues that provide depth information when viewing a scene with one eye (monocular) or both eyes (binocular).

Perceptual Constancies

• Size and Shape Constancy: Understanding that objects maintain the same size and shape despite changes in their appearance or location.

2.8b Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgements & Decision-Making

Thinking and Problem Solving

• The Basis of Thought: How thought, judgment, and decision-making processes are influenced by psychological theories.

• Prototypes and Schemas: Used in cognitive processing to categorize and interpret information.

• Problem-Solving Strategies: Efficiency vs. accuracy, use of algorithms vs. heuristics.

Decision Making

• Heuristics in Decision-Making: Cognitive shortcuts that often lead to a solution but can also lead to errors.

• Influences on Decision-Making: Includes mental set, framing, and priming.

• Obstacles: Such as the Gambler’s Fallacy and the Sunk-Cost Fallacy.

• Executive Function: Components include working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control.

Proactive interference

2.8c Introduction to Memory

Memory Types and Structures

• Explicit and Implicit Memory: Types of long-term memory with different characteristics and uses.

• Encoding, Storing, Retrieving Memories: Processes involved in memory formation, preservation, and recall.

• Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges: Theories explaining why forgetting occurs and the conditions that affect memory retention.

• Memory Models: Alan Baddeley’s Working Memory Model, Multi-Store Model of Memory.

2.8d Assessing Intelligence and Achievement

Intelligence and Achievement

• Theories of Intelligence: Modern and historical perspectives on intelligence and how it can be measured.

• Intelligence Quotient (IQ) and Testing: Approaches to quantifying intelligence and the use of standardized tests.

• Socio-Culturally Responsive Assessments: Ensuring fairness across diverse groups.

• Impact of IQ Test Results: Ethical considerations and societal implications of intelligence testing.

1. Experimental

2. B. Executive function refers to skills that you use to manage everyday tasks like making plans, solving problems and adapting to new situations. The three main skills are working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibition control. These skills develop during your lifetime, often declining as you get older.

4. Research can be generalizable to the individuals over 65 years old for women and over 60 years old….add more

5. At least one of the research finding supports the researchers hypothesis that taking a multivitamin slows cognitive decline in later life because the study talks about the participant receiving the multivitamin had significantly greater improvement in the recall of the task at the end of the first year compared to those that don't

Unit 3 Development & Learning

Enduring themes:

Stability vs. Change:

Nature vs Nurture:

• No one specific issue 

• Whatever happens to the mom can affect the child

• Like gene pool such as going through something stressful can affect someone multiple generations later.

Continuous vs Discontinuous:  

• infancy, childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, late adulthood

Longitudinal study: 

• Follow the same group over a considerable span of time

Cross Sectional Study:

• Follow different groups at one moment in time at different periods such as group A at 5 years, group B at 15 years, and group C at 30 years.

Prenatal Development:

1. Stages of Development:

   1. Conception→ zygote (fertilized egg)

   2. Zygotes enter 2 week period of rapid cell division as it travels to uterus to deveop embryo

   3. Embryos developing human organism are protected by placenta which transmits nutrients and oxygen from mother to embryo

   4. Nine weeks after conception the organism is known as a fetus at 22ish weeks the fetus reaches the threshold of viability meaning it has developed enough and is likely to survive if born prematurely

2. Prenatal Development:

   1. Teratogens: substance that could affect child

   2. Maternal illness

   3. Genetic mutations

   4. Hormonal factors

   5. Environmental factors

3. Motor Development:

   1. Gross Motor Skills:

   2. Fine Motor Skills:

3.1 Developmental Themes/Prenatal, Infancy, & Child Physical Development

1. Prenatal Development: Focuses on the crucial stages before birth where foundational physical structures and organ systems develop. Critical factors influencing prenatal development include nutrition, maternal health, and exposure to toxins.

2. Infancy Growth: The first two years are vital for brain development and overall physical growth. Infants initially experience rapid weight and height increases and develop primary motor skills.

3. Childhood Development: Continues with steady growth and refinement of motor skills and sensory systems. Childhood is also a period for developing basic physical capabilities and coordination.

4. Sensitive period: more challenging to learn

5. Critical period: almost impossible to learn

Research Methods:

• Cross-sectional Studies: Used to compare different population groups at a single point in time.

• Longitudinal Studies: Involve observing the same participants over a period of time, providing insights into development stages and long-term effects.

3.2 Adolescence & Adulthood Physical Development

Adolescence:

• Puberty: Marks significant physical changes such as growth spurts, hormonal changes, and the development of secondary sex characteristics.

• Brain Development: The adolescent brain undergoes important changes, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, which affects decision-making and risk-taking behaviors.

Adulthood:

• Early Adulthood: Physical capabilities are at their peak, including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiovascular functioning.

• Middle Adulthood: Gradual physical decline begins; changes in vision, hearing, and muscle mass are common.

• Late Adulthood: Marked by more pronounced physical changes; increased susceptibility to chronic diseases, further decline in cognitive functions, and issues like osteoporosis and cardiovascular problems become more common.

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages:

• Each stage of life is associated with a specific conflict that serves as a turning point in development. For example, in adolescence, the challenge is "Identity vs. Role Confusion," and in young adulthood, it is "Intimacy vs. Isolation."

3.3 

Jean Piaget:

1. Continuous vs. Discontinuos:

2. Forming & Modifying Schemas:

   1. Schema

   2. Assimilation

   3. Accomodation

Stages of Cognitive Development:

1. Sensorimotor

   1. The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

2. Preperational

   1. Mental Symbols

      1. Mental representations of objects in the world around them

   2. Pretend play

      1. Fantasy pr make believe play that includes an as if orientation to actions, objects, and peers. It often involved playing a distinct role such as mother, teacher, or doctor.