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HISTORY GR 11 & 12
The Study of History 11.1.1
History is the study of the past.
We study history because it helps us learn about our past mistakes so that we can make better decisions in the future.
Studying of history enables us to develop useful skills and make informed judgments about our society today.
Historical study is concerned with the human past and the stages of development that humans have passed through.
An historianâs work is to study the past through evidences gathered to make informed judgements about how people have lived in the past.
Oral traditions refer to traditions by word of mouth.
Oral traditions are passed down from generation to generation and include songs, stories, and poems.
Primary sources of evidence are the original types.
Secondary sources of evidence are second-hand information.
Secondary sources also seen as reported information from the eye witness
Historical terminologies are inter-related.
Each historical field of study is concerned with remains of the past as the historical evidences.
Archaeologists use a scientific method called radio carbon dating to give accurate dates to remains of bones, objects and organic materials.
Anthropology is a field of study that investigates the behaviour of the people and how they respond and use their environment.
Linguistic is the study of the different language groups.
Botany is the study of fungi and algae that helps us to make comparison and investigate the ancient plant life transitions.
Zoology is the study of animal kingdom.
Biology is the study of life and living things.
Paleontology is the study of fossil remains of animals and plant life of past geological periods
Timescale is an arrangement of events used as a measure of duration of a period of history, geologic or cosmic time.
It is important to know the dating and time scales in order to understand the past and the present events.
A cosmic calendar is a chart that shows people how long the earth has existed and man came to live.
A timeline help us to understand how long ago things happened, and how different events in the past related to each other.
Prehistory 11.1.2
The island of New Guinea is the second largest island in the world.
The eastern half of the island of New Guinea situates Papua New Guinea, and West Papua (Irian Jaya) occupies the western half.
The Sunda land comprised mainland Southeast Asia, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesian islands and the Philippines.
The Sahul land comprised the Australian continent and island of New Guinea.
The animal and plant life on the Sunda and Sahul land masses developed separately over thousands of years.
The Ice Age is a period when the climate was colder resulting in the polar ice caps being frozen and a lower sea level.
A warmer climate results in the ice caps melting raising the sea level.
The Western Pacific region was settled long before the islands of the vast Pacific Ocean.
Indonesia has the longest history of human occupation before New Guinea and Australia.
The remains of fossils and bones found on the island of Java show that early hominids lived there more than 500, 000 years ago.
Most agreed archaeological dating showed that modern man lived in Papua New Guinea and Australia almost 40, 000 years ago.
Micronesia was settled about 4,000 to 5,000 years ago.
Polynesia was settled about 1,000 to 3,000 years ago.
Archaeologists believe that the early people came to the Pacific from Asia in two major waves of migration.
The first group came about 50, 000 years ago when the sea level was low; they are thought to be the earliest ancestors of the Australian Aborigines and the New Guinea highlanders.
Waisted stone axe discovered throughout the Pacific and Asia is evidence of the peopleâs mobility and trade.
The evidence of lapita pottery also provides useful information about the second wave of migration.
Linguistic evidence also suggests these movements of people into the different parts of the Pacific.
There were factors that caused people to move away from their environment.
The initial spread of humanity across the earth was driven mainly by food and climate.
Nomadic tribes followed the migration patterns of the herd animals they hunted.
Climate change also created new opportunities in hunting which eventually led to people more conducive environments.
Human societies evolved in stages over thousands of years.
The findings of archaeological evidences suggest the path the early people took into the Pacific.
Archaeological evidences include waisted stone axe and lapita.
Waisted stone axes were used by the early people in cutting down trees for gardening.
Lapita pottery was used in trade and was left behind when people moved to new places to resettle.
Archaeological sites in Papua New Guinea portray a variety of evidences.
Archaeological evidence helps the work of archaeology by telling us about the way of life of the early people
There are two different groups of languages spoken in the Pacific.
Austronesian language speakers came in the first wave of migration to mainland New Guinea and southward to Australia.
Non-Austronesian speakers came in the second wave of migration to the New Guinea islands region and on into the other Pacific islands.
There are about 800 different language groups in Papua New Guinea.
Culture is a way of life of a group of people.
Papua New Guinea cultures are many and diverse.
There are about 800 different language groups.
Societies follow a matrilineal or patrilineal family lineage.
Some societies follow a chieftaincy type of leadership.
Customs and traditions were accepted ways of doing things in a particular society.
Papua New Guinean customs and traditions include marriage, death and birth ceremonies, oral traditions, art and craft, and traditional spiritual beliefs.
Individual societies behave differently according to their values, customs and traditions.
The end goal of respecting customs and traditions, and abiding by the rules of society is to maintain peace and harmony, and preserve our customs and traditions for future generations.
Traditional Trade 11.1.3
Trade is the exchange of goods and services.
Barter is the exchange of goods for other goods.
Trade takes place for several reasons.
There are different trade patterns by different group of people.
The common trade systems in Papua New Guinea include: Hiri Trade, Vitiaz, and the Kula Expedition.
People from Manus traded with island people of Kalimantan in Indonesia
Austronesian language The Austronesian languages are a language family that is widely dispersed throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. These languages are spoken in New Guinea islands and the other parts of the Melanesia and the Pacific.
Chieftaincy a region or a people ruled by a chief
Egalitarian believing in or based on the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities
Homo sapien Homo is the human genus, which also includes Neanderthals and many other extinct species of hominid; Homo sapiens is the only surviving species of the genus Homo.
Ice Age a glacial episode during a past geological period
Non Austronesian language Languages that are found in mainland New Guinea and mainland coastal areas
Norms Standards, rules of a society
Prehistory The time before written records were kept
Wallace Line The Wallace Line or Wallace's Line is a faunal boundary line drawn in 1859 by the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace that separates the ecozones of Asia and Wallacea, a transitional zone between Asia and Australia.
2. IMPERIALISM
European Imperialism11.2.1
The Italian Renaissance
Renaissance means rebirth.
During the Renaissance old Greek and Roman ideas were revived in books, paintings and sculpture.
People showed great interest in learning about the world and new ideas developed that created the Renaissance of that period
Characteristics of the Renaissance include rediscovering literature, moral values, individualism, and education
Politics, Religion and Humanism in the Renaissance
The church and the state were viewed as two different aspects of one Christian society.
The powers of the Catholic Church declined due to new knowledge introduced by the Renaissance.
The reigns of monarch rulers marked the beginning of the development toward the modern state.
Monarchs involved ordinary citizens in trade and other decision making processes.
The Catholic Church had difficulty adjusting to the demands of a society based on money rather than allegiances.
The Catholic Church slowly diminished its superiority and power in politics and governance.
Humanism is a philosophical thought and attitude that stresses the dignity and worth of the individual.
Science and Arts in the Renaissance
The age of the Renaissance introduced a crucial place in the history of science.
The biggest contribution was done by humanists who had a direct influence in the field of science and arts in the Renaissance period.
The Renaissance spirit of excitement in the areas of experimentation and search for concrete evidences was important to the development of science in Europe.
The spirit of curiosity was also extended to exploration and navigation.
Belgian physician Andreas Vesalius helped establish the foundations of modern anatomy in the 16th century.
Columbus made a tremendous contribution in the knowledge of astronomy navigational skills.
The results of renaissance were building of modern ships, cities and boom in business activities.
Galileo Galilei and Renaissance Science
Galileo was an Italian physicist and astronomer who initiated the scientific revolution in the 17th century.
Galileoâs main contributions were in astronomy, and the use of the telescope in observation and the discovery of the solar system.
Galileo believed that Earth revolved around the sun.
Most of Galileoâs teachings came from ancient Greeks.
Age of Exploration and Discovery
The Age of exploration and discovery is also known as the Old Imperialism.
The Age of exploration and discovery is marked by interest in exploring the unknown world using the knowledge provided by the early scientists.
Advancement in navigational instruments such as the compass made it possible for explorers to plan routes in long voyages.
Development of the compass started the knowledge in map skills and geographical location of places for exploration and colonisation.
The Age of Reason
Age of Enlightenment describe the great moments in philosophy in Europe and the American colonies in the 18th century.
The phrase was used by writers of the period itself, convinced the world was emerging from centuries of darkness and ignorance into a new age enlightened by reason, science, and a respect for humanity.
During this period was also the discovery by Isaac Newton of universal gravitation.
Newtonâs discovery of gravity inspired research of natural laws.
Enlightenment thinkers were interested in discovering the truth about the nature through observation.
This period of Age and Reason marked the beginning of scientific discoveries and experimentation.
The Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution describes the change from an agricultural society to one based on industry and machinery.
Industrial Revolution occurred in late 1800s and still continues today.
Industrial Revolution is about manual labour being replaced by machines in large factories.
Machinery did the work efficiently and effectively and producing goods in mass quantity.
By 1800s the Industrial Revolution spread to Europe and North America.
The Industrial Revolution spread to Asia in the 1900s.
Technological advances transformed production.
The Industrial Revolution changed peopleâs lives.
Industrial Revolution has good sides as well as challenges.
The Effects of Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution had led to global warming.
Global warming occurs as a result of air pollution from cars, factories, and human activities.
The modern, industrial societies created by the Industrial Revolution came about at a great cost.
Industrialisation has many side effects.
In this sub unit, you looked at European imperialism.
The European Renaissance started in Florence, Italy around the 1400s. This was around the 13th century. It was a time of rebirth in which old Greek and Roman ideas were revisited creating renewed interest in arts, literature and science. There were much discovery in politics, religion and the study of humanism. Many great philosophers were realised during this period in their great contributions to these subjects. Great discoveries also in science came about giving renewed importance in the study of space exploration. In the Age of Reason many questions were asked by philosophers and scientists about the world we lived in and how it worked or how society should be.
The Renaissance fueled the great Industrial Revolution that started in England in the 1750s that is 18th century.
Scramble for Colonies (Old Imperialism)11.2.2
Imperialism in the 19th and 20th Centuries
The main interest behind maintaining colonies was to exploit natural resources to support Europeâs industries.
Almost all European powers participated in the Scramble for colonies in Africa, Asia and the Pacific.
Colonialism is where one country assumes political control over another.
Imperialism broadly refers to political or economic control exercised either formally or informally.
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the British Empire reached the height of its power, ruling over large parts of Africa, Asia, Pacific and North America.
British settlement colonies achieved autonomy gradually adopting a constitution.
British colonies in South Africa followed a different path.
Japan founded the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, mainly to unite Asian nations against Western domination.
European imperialism also resulted from the desire for power, prestige, security and establishment of powerful relationships with others.
In general, strong countries dominated weaker ones to promote their own national self-interest, out of economic, religious, cultural, or other reasons.
The indigenous people suffered various forms of suppression and intimidation.
America was against the idea of colonialism and pressured Britain to give away its colonies for independence.
The Scramble for Colonies in Africa
Scramble for coloniesâ refers to the âgrabbingâ of colonies in Africa by European powers for economic, social and political reasons.
European nations partitioned Africa at the Berlin West Africa Conference (1884-1885).
Almost every part of the African continent was a European colony.
Africans responded by being aggressive and in some places the Europeans were confronted by internal resistance to foreign domination.
The British had the biggest empire in Africa.
Southern Africa was more important in the Scramble due to its large deposits of gold.
After the Berlin Conference treaties of protection were signed with the leaders of African societies, states, kingdoms, decentralised societies, and empires.
The different interpretation of these treaties by the various faction forces often led to conflict and eventually to military encounters.
Africans were forced to work under pressure and threats.
The main cause of the resistance was that the Africans wanted their land and resources.
Ethiopia was the only state that resisted Italian invasion.
Africa on the eve of World War I was almost entirely controlled by Europeans.
Nelson Mandela fought strongly against the system of Apartheid in South Africa.
After World War II many African territories fought for independence from European colonisation.
There are 11 countries in Southeast Asia.
Each of these countries had their own experiences of European colonialism and their path towards eventual independence.
Colonies in Asia
By the mid-19th century, the major colonial powers in Asia were Britain and Russia.
After defeating French in the late 18th century, the British expanded in India, annexing and expanding influences. By 1850 they controlled the entire subcontinent.
The main aim of the Western powers to come to Asia was to trade.
The era of European colonial expansion began in Asia in the early 1500s as European explorers and traders sought new sea-trade routes to Asia.
The Dutch claimed control of the East Indies from Portugal to gain a monopoly on the spice trade.
In the late 1880s France imposed colonial rule in present-day Vietnam and Cambodia, naming its territory the Indochinese Union (commonly known as French Indochina), extended in 1893 to include Laos.
Chinese civilisation is one of the oldest civilisations in the world.
For thousands of years, dynasties ruled over China.
Communism is a political and economic system that the United States strongly opposes.
Vietnam was split in half in 1954, after fighting a war to gain independence from France. When French forces withdrew, Vietnamese communists gained control of North Vietnam.
South Vietnam had a non-communist government.
unit 11.2.2 looked at the scramble for colonies mainly in Africa and Asia in the 1800s and 1900s. The colonisation of the Pacific took place later in the 1900s or early 20th century. African colonisation took place mainly in the interest of Europeans and for the economic benefits that could be gained. Vast natural resources were exploited and human labour abused by early colonisers in Africa. Africa people were severely suppressed during European colonial rule.
In Asia, occurred a similar trend to that of African colonisation. The countries that were being looked after by Europeans followed the same style of political government and leadership. Asia provided the market for European goods and raw materials for its industries
The Arrival of Foreigners in the Pacific 11.2.3
Explorers and Traders
There were different groups of Europeans that came to the Pacific and for various motives.
The first group of people to have come into the Pacific were explorers followed by traders, miners, and missionaries.
There were different missions that came to Papua and New Guinea.
The first Christian station was established by the French Marist Catholics on Woodlark Island in the Milne Bay Province in 1847.
The missionaries were the first group of foreigners to really affect the lives of New Guineans through the Gospel.
The missionaries set up schools and aid posts to help the local people.
The German missions were encouraged to spread the German language and culture.
The LMS brought other Pacific island missionaries and volunteers to work in Papua.
The Pacific island nations came under a tremendous threat by colonial influence and exploitation of its human and natural resources.
The British, French and Dutch became powerful imperial nations by their influence and extension in the Pacific.
Westerners brought both tragedy and innovation to the Pacific region.
Japan brought the Americans into the war by bombing the U.S. military base in Hawaii
Effects, Reactions and Blackbirding
There were hostile as well as friendly reactions amongst the local people and foreigners.
Black birding is a system of forced labour recruitment used by foreigners on the local people. Natives, nicknamed blackbirds, were recruited or often kidnapped with force to work as labourers in Australia.
The Pacific islanders experienced a harsh work pressure in the plantations which was not normally experienced in their villages.
A positive aspect of labour trade was returning home with steel knives and tools to use in gardening and house building.
The Coming of Administrators
An administrator is someone who is in charge of or administers an organisation or colony.
Administrators and government representatives had a great impact on the lives of Papua New Guineans.
Settlers were people who came into a territory to live and do their business.
The island of New Guinea was divided between Germany and Britain with the creation of a border.
Upon Australiaâs political independence, the administration of British New Guinea was transferred to Australia in 1906 and renamed Papua.
New Guinea was administered by the German New Guinea Company since 1884.
The Germans left New Guinea at the start of the First World War, in 1914.
Australian forces took control of German New Guinea from 1914 to 1922. Australia was formally given the mandate to look after the mandated territory until 1942 when the Second World War broke out.
German occupation of New Guinea was seen as a threat to Australia
Britain already had many colonies all over the world and was not keen on annexing southern east New Guinea, until later when the Germans annexed New Guinea.
The Queenslandersâ main motive in persuading Britain to annex southern east New Guinea was basically to protect the British settlers in the Queensland colony.
unit 11.2.3, looked at the different groups of people that came to New Guinea and into other parts of the Pacific. Explorers came before the others beginning the 16th century sighting land. Followed by explorers came traders with the purpose to trade for spices and other resources. Planters came to New Guinea to plant cash crops and make profit. The main motive for these Europeans to come was to make profit and accumulate wealth.
Their coming to New Guinea had a major effect on the people in the long term. The indigenous people reacted mostly negatively towards the early Europeans particularly explorers. A primary effect on the people was the abuse of human labour and exploitation to be forced to work in sugar plantations in Queensland and in East New Britain, New Guinea Islands.
Another group of Europeans that arrived were administrators. Administrators brought about many social and economic development and changes in the lives of native New Guineans.
European Imperialism in Papua New Guinea 11.2.4
German Administration
German New Guinea Company took control of mainland and island New Guinea between 1885 and 1889.
German New Guinea Company employed different people to work on plantations.
German New Guinea Company established some major cocoa and copra plantations on the mainland and the islands.
The local people were not used to working very long hours in the plantations and gave up as they were not used to in their custom
The German New Guinea Company was given the role of administering the territory on a temporary basis for business and economic reasons.
In 1889, the German government appointed Governor Albert Hahl who was an experienced colonial administrator and manager to take over and run the affairs of German New Guinea.
Hahl governed German New Guinea until the territory was taken over by Australia at the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
Hahl appointed a council of senior officials and private settlers to advise him on the administration of the colony.
Administrator Hahl experienced similar problems in German New Guinea especially in labour recruitment drives. This situation contributed a lot in the general economic progress of the Imperial German administration. Many people responded that they had surplus of food in the gardens and were no longer interested in working for someone else.
The Germans worked only along the coastal areas and much of the interior highlands region of the mainland was untouched.
The impact of German Rule in Gazelle Peninsula was the establishment of copra and cocoa plantations.
The colonial administration worked with the missionaries to spread the gospel and German language and cultures.
The British and Australians in Papua (1884-1905)
British interest in Papua was to keep other powers out of the region because of Australia which was beginning to develop after being a former British colony.
In the British territory, the colonial authority decided which laws and rules should be made as well as ensuring that they were obeyed by the people.
Captain James Erskine a British Naval Officer raised the British flag in Port Moresby on 6 th November 1884 on behalf of the government of Great Britain.
The British were not interested in using the peopleâs land and labour for commercial purposes. The British officials protected the people and their land.
In 1888, Papua formally became a British protectorate, and it was known as British Papua
From 1888 to 1898 Sir William Macgregor became the first governor of the colony.
Under Macgregor, the people were introduced to the colonial systems of authority where rulers were appointed by colonial authority.
Many Europeans came to the colony in search of gold which started at Sudest and Misima Islands.
Macgregor supported the idea of people becoming small cash-crop farmers so that they were self-reliant.
Macgregor developed a policy to prevent Europeans from buying land cheaply.
Macgregor encouraged simple health and hygiene and communicated with the missions to provide a little education to assist the local people.
Apart from the other colonial administrators Macgregorâs influence left the foundation for future government of Papua New Guinea. The written records and oral history affirms that he was one of the best administrators the colony ever had because of his style of leadership.
Macgregorâs partnership with the churches and missionaries contributed a lot in the administration of the colony and his policies were adopted for the independent state of Papua New Guinea.
It is important that we acknowledge the work of the missionaries who changed the lives of the local people by preaching the gospel.
In 1905 the Australian Parliament passed the Papuan Act that enabled Australia to formally take over the British colony of New Guinea which was renamed Papua.
Sir Hubert Murray was the first administrator appointed by Australia.
This native labour policy was used to monitor the way labourers were recruited and employed in the plantations.
The Australian government passed laws to regulate Europeanâs use of Papuan land and labour.
unit 11.2.3 discussed European imperialism in New Guinea starting 1884. New Guinea was looked after as separate protectorates. German administration took care of New Guinea mainland and islands. Papua was looked after by the British until Australiaâs independence in 1906 saw Papua become a protectorate of Australia.
British and German administrations in brought about major economic and social changes and developments in the lives of native people. Schools and health centres were built as well as teaching the people how to look after themselves to avoid sickness.
Response to Imperialism in Asia, Pacific 11.2.5
Response
There were different responses to European colonisation from Africa, Asia and the Pacific regions. ï· Colonies were established for various reasons.
European countries claimed colonies to extend their influence and show their technology and military power.
Primary resistance refers to indigenous states and people fighting Europeansâ at first attempts to control them.
Secondary resistance occurs after the colonising nation had established its power.
The British settlement colonies achieved autonomy gradually through a final establishment of a constitution except colonies in southern Africa.
Before becoming the first black president of South Africa in 1994, Nelson Mandela was imprisoned for fighting against the apartheid system of the white minority government.
Mandela became a worldwide symbol of resistance to white domination in South Africa.
Many other leaders in Africa, Asia and the Pacific had fought for sovereignty for their countries.
Pacific islands were colonised and given autonomy by the Europeans though they left behind severe effects to the traditional lifestyle.
West Indian society inherited a social structure based on slavery, the plantation, and colonial rule.
The effect of nationalist movements was evident not only in the political and economic activity of the islands, but also in the spread of intellectual activity
Ideas of Race
Race, the idea that the human species is divided into distinct groups on the basis of inherited physical and behavioural differences.
Segregation was a system that kept white and black people apart until the 1960s and which was primarily used in South America.
Before the civil rights movement, black people were often not treated fairly in the United States.
Assimilation is the process by which individuals or groups are absorbed into and adopt the dominant culture and society of another group.
Paternalism is a feeling of being more influential and continuing to undermine the abilities of others.
Racial Segregation in the United States was made legal and it became a social practice of separating people on the basis of their race or ethnic background.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was one of the most sweeping reforms of racial inequality in the United States.
During the early colonial period the Australian Aborigines experienced many racial oppression and discrimination.
In 1937, a conference of federal and state Aboriginal authorities agreed to a formal assimilation policy, although it was not strongly implemented until after 1945.
All over the world there were several racial discrimination attitudes against the indigenous people.
Early Micro nationalist movements in Papua New Guinea
Nationalism is characterised principally by a feeling of community among a people, based on common descent, language, and religion.
The early micro-nationalist movements in Papua New Guinea consisted of a collection of movements and opposition to political and economic rule. These movements were influenced by the European colonial administration and introduction of formal governance systems.
Several of the more prominent micro-nationalist movements of the 1970s had their origins in organising local opposition to government policies.
Papua New Guineans involved in micro-nationalist movements wanted to protect their territories and stop others exploiting their land and resources.
Maori and Australian Aborigines
The Maori nationalist movements were comprised of indigenous rights movement in New Zealand.
In 1975 New Zealand passed the Treaty of Waitangi Act in an attempt to hear and resolve these issues.
The King Movement gained importance in 1858 after a census showed that Europeans in New Zealand outnumbered Maori.
The King Movement decided not to challenge British authority, instead become partners in which the Maori would govern themselves.
The original Australians were the Aborigines.
The British settlers had different ideas about how the land should be used and owned.
When the British took possession of Australia, they called it 'Terra Nullius' (empty land) and gave no rights to the Aborigines
Both the Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal lands within Australia contain sites and landforms that have spiritual significance to Aboriginal people.
The Indian Nationalist Movement
One of the results of the social, economic and political changes introduced in India in the 18th century was the growth of the Indian middle class.
Indians realised their rights and various forms of economic and political deprivation by British colonial government.
The Nationalist Movements in India were organised in mass movements emphasising the interests of the Indian people.
Mohatma Ghandi was a nationalist leader who spent his life campaigning for human rights in India. His protest strategy was to use both passive resistance and non-cooperation on British rule in India.
The Swadeshi movement encouraged the Indian people to stop using British products and use their own handmade products.
unit, you looked at Responses to colonialism. The indigenous people reacted in different ways to colonial rule. Early micro nationalist movements resulted from peoplesâ resentment towards colonial rule and how best to do away with it. In New Guinea micro nationalist movements started in different parts of the country. The Maoris and Australian Aborigines fought hard for their land rights. The Treaty of Waitangi gave the Maoris rights to their traditional Maori land. Australian Aborigines were most severely mistreated by the British in Australia.
3. WORLD WAR 1 AND ITS AFTERMATH
World War 1 11.3.1
The Start of the War
World War I began on July 28, 1914, when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. This seemingly small conflict between two countries spread rapidly: soon, Germany, Russia, Great Britain, and France were all drawn into the war, largely because they were involved in treaties that obligated them to defend certain other nations. Western and Eastern fronts quickly opened along the borders of Germany and Austria-Hungary.
The Western and Eastern Fronts
The first month of combat consisted of bold attacks and rapid troop movements on both fronts. In the west, Germany attacked first Belgium and then France. In the east, Russia attacked both Germany and Austria-Hungary. In the south, Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia. Following the Battle of the Marne (September 5â9, 1914), the western front became entrenched in central France and remained that way for the rest of the war. The fronts in the east also gradually locked into place.
The Ottoman Empire
Late in 1914, the Ottoman Empire was brought into the fray as well, after Germany tricked Russia into thinking that Turkey had attacked it. As a result, much of 1915 was dominated by Allied actions against the Ottomans in the Mediterranean. First, Britain and France launched a failed attack on the Dardanelles. This campaign was followed by the British invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula. Britain also launched a separate campaign against the Turks in Mesopotamia. Although the British had some successes in Mesopotamia, the Gallipoli campaign and the attacks on the Dardanelles resulted in British defeats.
Trench Warfare
The middle part of the war, 1916 and 1917, was dominated by continued trench warfare in both the east and the west. Soldiers fought from dug-in positions, striking at each other with machine guns, heavy artillery, and chemical weapons. Though soldiers died by the millions in brutal conditions, neither side had any substantive success or gained any advantage.
The United Statesâ Entrance and Russiaâs Exit
Despite the stalemate on both fronts in Europe, two important developments in the war occurred in 1917. When the war started, USA practiced Isolationism as a foreign policy and did not want to be part of conflict or issue. However, in April, the United States, angered by attacks upon its ships in the Atlantic, declared war on Germany. Then, in November, the Bolshevik Revolution prompted Russia to pull out of the war
4.WORLD WAR 2 AND ITS EFFECTS
At the beginning of the 20th century, China was divided into sphere of influence with each powerful Western nation trying to exert as much control over it as possible.
The Chinese resented foreigners control and expressed this at the beginning of the 20th century with the Boxer Rebellion. At the same time, the traditional government of China began to fail in the early years.
The Chinese people, being resentful of foreigners and dissatisfied with inability of the present government to throw them out, initiated the Revolution of 1911, replacing the Chinese 2000 year old imperial system with the Republic of China headed by Sun Yatsen.
In March of 1912, Sun Yat-sen resigned and Yuan Shih-kai became the next ruler of China. Yuan attempted to reinstate an imperial system with himself as emperor causing Sun to start one of Chinaâs first political parties, Kuomintang or KMT.
On May 4, 1919, the May Fourth Movement took place in which students demonstrated in protest of the Treaty of Versailles. The Movement helped the Chinese by promoting science and making Chinese adopt a new easier form of writing. Moreover, the movement was the foundation for the forming of the Communist Party of China (CCP).
During the 1920âs, China was divided in a power struggle began between the CCP and KMT. The KMT controlled a majority of China with a strong base in urban areas while the CCP displaying smallholdings in rural communities.
The army of the Republic of China, under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek tried to destroy the Communist army in 1934, however, Chiang failed but did cause the CCP to flee northward in the Long March.
In 1931, Japan occupied Manchuria and established a puppet government called Manchukuo. The Japanese aggression in China became full blown on July 7, 1937.
By 1939, Japan controlled most of the east coast of China, while Chiang blockaded the Communists in the northwest region.
By 1948, the CCP began to wage war against the KMT, taking control of Manchuria and working its way south. On October 1, 1949, with the retreat of the KMT to Taiwan, Mao Tse tung established the Peopleâs Republic of China.
Between 1937 and 1941, increasing conflict between China and Japan influenced U.S. relations with both nations, and finally contributed to pushing the United States toward full-scale war with Japan and Germany.
DECOLONISATION AND INDEPENDENCE 12.1
Effects of World War 2 12,1.1
The Second World War was a war of rapid movement and was a much more complex affair that occurred between 1938 and 1945.
WWII affected more places in the world compared to WWI, as a direct consequence resulting in massive and immeasurable destruction to both lives and properties.
At the end of the war, the leading European nations (i.e. Britain, France, Germany and Italy were no longer dominant.
The war also displaced millions of people from their homes, resulting in millions of refugees in search of a place to resettle and rebuild their lives.
The effects of the Second World War can be categorised under the following:
(a) Enormous destructions
(b) There was no all-inclusive peace settlement
(c) The war stimulated important social changes
(d) The war caused the production of nuclear weapons
(e) Europeâs domination of the rest of the world ended
(f) Emergence of the super-powers
(g) Decolonisation
(h) Formation of the United Nations Organisation (UNO)
Pathway to Independence12.1.2
During the late nineteenth century, planters as well as missionaries began to colonise the islands that had become known as the New Hebrides.
These planters and missionaries were either from France or Britain.
In 1875, Tannese settlers, mostly Catholics, wrote to the French government suggesting that the islands be annexed by the (Catholic) French Government.
In 1876, planters sent an identical submission. Presbyterian missionaries saw this as a threat and waged a press campaign in Australia and England, for the New Hebrides to be annexed by the British.
Ten years passed while French planters bought up almost all the useable land in an effort to take economically control of what they could not yet control politically.
France suggested to Britain that it would exchange any English claims to the French claimed Leeward Islands and Newfoundland, in exchange for the New Hebrides. Britain did not agree and things stood at an impasse.
Between 1882 and 1886, around twenty Europeans were killed by local villagers. France sent detachments of troops from New Caledonia.
A joint agreement to rule was raised. It was called the Condominium. It became known as Pandemonium and was the single most inappropriate form of rule, any group of peoples had to live under.
As a result of World War II throughout the islands, indigenous New Hebridean's were astounded at the equality with which black and white military personnel were treated.
The Changing World 12.2.1
In this subunit we have seen that the immediate post WW11 period (and as shall be discussed in the subsequent subunits) was dominated by Cold War. This was a war of ideologies of the two super powers (USSR and USA) and fought indirectly by using others. After being part of the Grand Alliance in WW11 both super powers became two enemies and feared each otherâs supremacy, influence and ideology may become too dominant in the world. USSR had communism and socialism while USA valued capitalism with democracy. Their fear and distrust of each other was evident during the war and hence several international conferences were held to establish a road map of dialogue. However this seemed to have had little effect as the fear and distrust of each other developed into great hostility.
The Cold War hostility between the two powers resulted in the dividing of the European countries into two spheres of influence as reflected by the Iron Curtain fence across the European continent. East Europe countries became the satellite states of USSR while the Western European countries became supporters of USA. This also included the zoning of Germany and the Berlin city. Both super powers were able to use both their economic and military might through various strategies (Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, The Cominform and Motolov Plan) to spread and consolidate their influence among their supporting satellite states and nations.
What made Cold War very dangerous were the development, deployment and threat to use of nuclear weapons by both superpowers. Developments of nuclear missiles to outdo each other were also very costly to USSR and USA. Additionally the two super powers were able to entangle the internal power conflicts of certain countries (Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan) and the ânationalisation programsâ of certain countries (Cuba) to fight their war of ideology or âgreedâ in the territories of these sovereign countries. The losses on the indigenous were very severe where thousands of lives were lost, many were displaced and economies destroyed. There were also human losses as well as the economic pains on the super powers for spreading their influence or countering the spread of oneâs influence.
The artificial divides established by the two powers that divided one country into two like in Vietnam, Korea and Germany including Berlin were also very painful to the indigenous. Relatives were separated and made to support or fight in the opposing groups. In some satellite states of Russia like Berlin, citizens were forced to escape in thousands into the American side of the city due to economic hardships. The hardships were also worsened by the super powers strong grip on their controlled states like Russia on East Berlin. East Berlin was impoverished by Russia squeezing out its resources and at the same time fencing off the citizens to escape to the other side.
The closest the two super powers came to a head-on confrontation was the Cuban crisis and the Berlin Block off. Fortunately commonsense prevailed and the two super powers blocked off, thus avoiding a possible nuclear war that could have more catastrophic effects on everyone. To avoid a nuclear war and with enormous economic costs on the two respective economies on fighting the Cold War the two super powers were able to establish dĂ©tente â a permanent peace for considerable periods of time. This was made possible by the signing of various treaties on arms control although Russianâs invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 breached the dĂ©tente spirit. The dĂ©tente spirit was ensured by certain individual leaders on both sides that eventually led to the decline of communism in late 1980s. With the collapse of communism and disintegration of Russia, USA emerged as the only super power. In the next section the new developments will be discussed.
12.2.2: International Relations & Rise of Superpowers
ï· Individual influential leaders of both USSR and USA significantly contributed to the long periods of world peace and stability. Signs of change emerged with the new Russian leadership in Khrushchev in 1953. Khrushchev achieved significant success in improving the standard of living of the Russianâs through his domestic economic policies. However it was his peaceful coexisting with the West policy that had captured the imagination of peace loving supporters in the West. He may have been a âweakâ leader in the handling of the Cuban crisis with John, F. Kennedy in 1962 but Khrushchev can be credited for backing off and thus avoiding a possible nuclear war.
The next Soviet Leader Brezhnev was stern supporter of communism and may have retarded peace progress when he took over from Khrushchev in 1964. At the cost of the stagnation of his economy Brezhnev ensured that Russian communism prevailed. Gorbachev was next Russian leader of influence and like Khrushchev he was open and had a liberal approach. His domestic economic policies did not achieve the desired results but his reform policies at the international level provided the pivotal instrument in finally ending communism and the Cold War.
Of the USA leaders during this period, John F. Kennedyâs foreign policy was all about confrontation with Russia. Summarily, both Reagan and Bush (snr) were equal to the task of spreading what USA stood for, and at the same time, containing the spread of communism. Their tough stand although at times, had lost some âbattlesâ of Cold War (Korean War and Vietnam War) was able to bring down communism and reestablished world peace. The collapse of communism in late 1980s coincided with the sad disintegration of the once solid USSR, leaving USA the lone superpower of the world.
12.2.3: International Co-operations
The ending of Cold War with communism did not end the miseries and the pains of people. These human sufferings are caused by natural disasters and men and women themselves. Most of affected were and are in the developing world. Sadly, the individual or the regional governments cannot afford to help.
After the Second World War the world leaders adopted the intuitional approach to maintain peace at the global level. Hence was the formation the UNO replacing the failed League of Nations. UNO contributed greatly to maintaining peace in the world with mixed success. It intervened to stop conflicts or negotiated cease fires and established treaties to ensure the stop of conflicts. Additionally, UNO through its various organisations addresses world injustice, poverty, gender and children's issues.
In the international economy WTO ensures that the international is not affected by restrictions. At the regional levels various regional political and economic organisations were formed to safeguard and promote the wellbeing of their economic and political stability.
Among the significant contributors to relieving the pains, hunger, and poverty of the world are the humanitarian organisations. These priceless organizations provide free humanitarian aids to the needy in resources and information freely in all aspects of life. They ensured that the needs of the targeted people are met by remaining neutral at all times, and include everyone despite their varying backgrounds
12.2.4: Conflicts and Wars of Resources
Conflicts and wars of resources have presented another dimension of the problems of the world. While much of the post WW2 period was dominated by the Cold War and its related events some countries of the world were fighting among themselves over power and resources.
Unfortunately elements and the involvement of the Cold War were inseparable. Power covered self-rule, attempted over-throws or replacing the existing regimes, and expanding territorial boundaries.
Resources basically covered the control and ownership of either someone elseâs resources or the respective countries valuable resources by the interest groups. Almost all of these conflicts in the Middle East, Latin America, Asia, Africa and Europe continents were intensified by the involvement of USSR and USA.
The countries were divided mostly by ethnicity and unfortunately the weaker ethnic groups endured most of the pain. These included loss of lives, injuries, psychological war scars, dispossessed from homes and land.
Fortunately UNO significantly helped to reestablish long term peace in some cases like the Indo China conflict and the Gulf War. Unfortunately in some conflicts UNO was not successful as in cases of Czechoslovakia in 1968 and Congo Civil War of 1960-64.
12.2.5: Global Issues
The world was confronted by other problems in terrorism, Islam Fundamentalism, continuing nuclear threats, nuclear proliferation, and transnational crimes.
America, as a symbol for the Western values had endured some of the worst attacks by the terrorists. A notable terrorist attack was the 9/11 crashing of two aeroplnanes into the Twin Tower in New York in 2002. Unfortunately the world led by the best efforts of USA and UNO to counter terrorism and transitional crimes are not achieving the desired results. Anti-terrorism attacks led by US may have scored a decisive victory in the fight against terrorism when US troops killed the leaders of Al Qaeda (Osama Bin Liden) in 2015.
These acts of terrorism and transnational crimes are very difficult to counter because of the complicated and the secretive nature of their networks that involves large syndicates operating in a number of countries.
It is mainly the religious motive that spurs the terrorist to die as martyrs makes the job of eradicating terrorism almost impossible.
Additionally, very lucrative returns in the transnational crimes that provide the incentive for the criminals to continue at risk. The continuation of nuclear threats lies in nuclear proliferation where the new countries desire to have access to nuclear weapons to assert their influence and superiority.
12.3.1: System of Government
Democratic Constitution
There are different types of democracies practiced in the world today.
The government of Papua New Guinea is a Constitutional Parliamentary democracy and a commonwealth member of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Democracy is a government by the people for the people.
Democratic Governance can be understood as the capacity of a society to define and establish policies and resolve their conflicts peacefully within the existing legal order.
A Constitution is nationâs fundamental set of laws.
Constitutional democracy is a system of government based on popular sovereignty in which the structures, powers, and limits of government are set forth in a Constitution.
The Westminster is a democratic system of government modelled after that of the United Kingdom. The system is a series of conventions and procedures for operating a legislature.
Political Party System
A political party is a group of persons organised to acquire and exercise political power.
Political parties originated in their modern form in Europe and the United States in the 19th century, along with the electoral and parliamentary systems, whose development reflects the evolution of parties.
A party system is a concept relative to political science about the system of government by political parties in a democratic country.
There are various types of political parties systems.
OLIPPAC was formed to strengthen the registration of political parties and behaviour of Parliamentarians.
National Goals and Directive Principles
The Constitution of Papua New Guinea states its National Goals and Directive Principles as follows:
1. Integral Human Development
2. Equality and Participation
3. National Sovereignty and Self-Reliance
4. Natural Resources
5. Papua New Guinean Way
Decentralisation
Decentralisation is the giving of powers to the provincial and local level governments so they control their own affairs.
The concept of decentralisation was introduced in the 1960s because it seemed to be the best way to plan and implement development strategies throughout the country.
There are three spheres of government in Papua New Guinea: national, provincial and local, as provided for by the constitution.
In 1973 Bougainville established the first an interim provincial government. A Provincial Government Act was passed in 1974, and in 1977 the Organic Law on Provincial Government was passed. This system was abolished in 1995 and new reforms introduced.
The provincial system government reforms were certified and took full effect on October 16, 1997. The reforms were introduced to improve the delivery of services to the rural areas and to increase participation in Government at community and local levels.
The reforms have done away with the old system of provincial governments and the new provincial governments under the Organic Law on Provincial Governments (OLPG); and LLGs constitutes a provincial assembly which is made up of Members of the National Parliament, including the Regional Member as Governor, the head of LLGs, womenâs representative and other appointed members.
The reforms have increased the powers of LLGs.
The newly elected LLGs receive funding each year and have powers to raise funds and can pass a variety of laws.
In 1995 the National Monitoring Authority was established to see that the reforms were implemented properly. A Provincial Inspectorate was established to set minimum standards in staffing and resources for basic services and infrastructure.
New Organic Law introduced significant changes.
These reforms gave more responsibility to provincial, district and local level government. By the end of 2000, the basic framework of these reforms had been established.
Governance
The terms governance and good governance are increasingly being used in development literature.
Governance describes the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented).
Good governance has 8 major characteristics. It is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law.
Good governance assures that corruption is minimised, the views of minorities are taken into account and the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making.
Good governance is also responsive to the present and future needs of society.
Political stability and good governance is vital for Papua New Guineaâs future growth and prosperity.
The government must at all times promote good governance to ensure transparency and accountability in everything it does for its citizens.
If corruption is not stopped it will completely destroy our government and society.
There are four strategies the government should use to combating corruption in Papua New Guinea
Organisations for Good Governance
Papua New Guinea has several institutions that aim at good governance which are the Ombudsman Commission, Leadership Tribunals, the Public Prosecutor and Public Accounts committee, and Transparency International (PNG).
The Ombudsman Commission is an independent institution established directly by the Constitution. It forms an integral part of the system of checks and balances that have been out in place by the Constitution to regulate the governance of Papua New Guinea.
The Commission has been established to guard against the abuse of power by those in the public sector; assist those exercising public power to do their jobs efficiently and fairly and impose accountability on those who are exercising public power.
The Leadership Tribunal is part and parcel of the National Court registry and its main function is to register, manage and administer tribunal files and documents filed in them.
The purpose of this Policy is to outline the principles upon which decisions are made by this Office in the institution and conduct of prosecutions.
Transparency International is a global (partner) coalition against corruption.
The Public Accounts Committee is a body set up by the government to look into spending by government bodies. It has the right to ask for audits of departments and can command heads of departments to present evidence and ask questions.
Bougainville Conflict and Resolution 12.3.2
Bougainville Agreement and Secession1967
Papua New Guinea became an independent nation in 1975. It was a country divided by many languages and customs.
The people of the islands of Bougainville felt a greater cultural and geographical connection to the Solomon Islands than they did to mainland Papua New Guinea.
Secessionist feelings flourished.
The establishment of a giant copper mine on the main island of Bougainville a few years before independence inflamed secessionist sentiments.
Bougainvilleans were denied a fair share of mine profits.
The PNG Independence Constitution stated that land ownership was to own what was just below the surface and that mineral rights belonged to the state.
Panguna Landowners Association
The Panguna Landowners Association (PLA) was formed in 1979, amongst customary landowners in the roads; mine and tailings lease areas, to review the compensation arrangements.
Late 1988 marked the beginning of a 9 year conflict with the destruction of power lines and attacks on the mine.
The Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) was led by Francis Ona and Sam Kauona and joined by members of the Provincial Government, who co-ordinated a campaign against the mine and declared independence for Bougainville.
The populist ideology of the BRA promoted a kind of agrarian socialism with emphasis on traditional culture. The BRA became an effective paramilitary organisation.
With the economic blockade imposed by Papua New Guinea, and little information reaching the outside world, anarchy prevailed.
The Papua New Guinea government failed to resolve the conflict.
The undisciplined actions of the BRA led to disillusion among villagers, and they responded by forming resistance forces who were in turn were armed by the Papua New Guinea Defence Force.
The PNGDF reoccupied Buka Island on the northern tip of Bougainville from September 1990.
After many years of conflict, the population was exhausted by the fighting, the lack of services, and disruption to their lives.
Following negotiations led by New Zealand, a truce monitoring force came to Bougainville in 1997 to monitor peace.
By the late 1990s there was a power shift in the BRA from militants like Ona to moderates like Joseph Kabui who had the support of Sam Kauona. Both Kabui and Kauona were willing to participate in peace talks.
Government services were gradually restored and negotiations carried on creating a more autonomous government for Bougainville, while still remaining a part of the nation of Papua New Guinea.
In 2001 a ceasefire agreement committed the Island to a referendum on full independence from Papua New Guinea in 10 to 15 years.
In 2005 a provincial government was elected, led by Joseph Kabui.
The new Bougainville administration would continue to run the island with greater autonomy, while the central government of Papua New Guinea will control defence and foreign affairs.
Francis Ona died on 25 July 2005.
1997 Sandline Crisis; PNG Defence Force Rebellion
The Sandline International was a private British-based military consultancy that was hiredby SirJulius Chan in 1997 to put an end to BRA opposition on Bougainville.
Australia expressed strong opposition for the PNG governmentâs decision to engage mercenaries.
The Sandline operation was prematurely terminated due to widespread opposition by the PNGDF and its commander, Brigadier General Singirok.
A Commission of Inquiry was set up to look into the mercenary contract. Sir Julius Chan, Mr Haiveta, and Mr Ijape stepped down from their offices for the duration of the inquiry.
As a result of the Sandline controversy, Jerry Singirok was dismissed from the PNGDF as Brigadier General, and Sir Julius Chan lost the 1997 national elections. Late Sir Bill Skate became Prime Minister.
UN Observer Mission Bougainville (UNOMB)
The UN Observer Mission for Bougainville was established in 1998 as part of the Lincoln Agreement to monitor the ceasefire.
The missionâs role was mainly to manage the talks and to individually pressure the sides towards a resolution.
Subsequently the UN undertook a role in the control and disposal of weapons, although its political role was in encouraging the partiesâ commitment to peace.
The UNOMB successfully accomplished its mission under Ibrahim Gambari, the UnderSecretary-General for Political Affairs.
The elements for the Missionâs success included its size, personnel and deliberate speed in the peace process. The Missionâs good leadership and cost-effectiveness had also contributed to its success.
In specific terms, the Mission was able to promote disarmament and weapons destruction; and facilitated international observation of the electoral process.
The signing of the Bougainville Peace Agreement in August 2001 was the responsibility of the United Nations to facilitate.
In 2001, the BPA which was signed between the National Government of PNG (GoPNG) and leaders representing the people of Bougainville - ended a 10-year civil conflict during which thousands of men and women lost their lives.
The UNPOB and UNOMB facilitated and monitored the peace agreement.
The peace agreement included three main pillars, namely; weapons disposal, the election of an autonomous government and; a referendum on the future political status of the island.
Autonomy Implementation and Monitoring was responsible for effective coordination of efforts from key implementing divisions and agencies within the ABG and the National Government in the execution of the priority actions to implement autonomy.
Foreign, Bilateral and Multi-lateral relations.
Another name for international relations is foreign affairs. The term international relations refer to both the fact and the study of relations between countries.
This can include the study of international bodies such as the UN or the WTO. International relations have grown with globalisation.
These relationships are very important for any independent country. No country in the world or itsâ people can exist entirely on their own; there have always been interactions between groups of people. International relations like any other relations can be either very complicated or very simple.
From independence in 1975, the new nation of Papua New Guinea established diplomatic, trade, investment and aid relationships with a range of countries and international organisations and corporations.
The classic purpose of establishing international relations is to advance the interest of a country. These following aspects are some areas of interests that affect all foreign relations: - Security and Defence - Trade activities - Social activities - Politics - Geography
Papua New Guineaâs foreign policy during this period operated in these five zones: Australia, neighbouring island states in the south-western Pacific, Indonesia, other countries in East Asia, and the rest of the world.
Independence or dependence (neo-colonialism
Relations with other countries are very important to an independent country. All countries in one way or the other need each other and therefore depend on other countries, this is called interdependence and this also leads to Neo-colonialism.
Trade is the system of buying and selling which exists between two or more partners.
Trade between countries is called international trade. International trade depends on what goods each country has to supply, the demand for those in other countries and the system of transportation that exists between them.
Aid is help or assistance that is provided to one country by other countries or by international organisations. The country or organisation which gives aid is called aid donor and the country receiving is the recipient.
Humanitarian aid is given for the benefit of the recipient only. All countries provide or receive this type of aid when disasters such as famines, earthquakes, cyclones, floods or volcanic eruptions occur.
All aid is an instrument of foreign relations. Developed countries use aid to promote their interest in countries which co-operate with them or deny aid to countries with which they are in conflict.
Development aid may be provided in the form of money. The aid can either be a grant, which is a gift, or a loan which has to be paid back.
About one quarter of all international aid is given as technical assistance in the form of skills of expert workers, relevant equipment and training of local technicians.
By far the largest component of international is given in the form of military aid.
About two-thirds of all aid is provided directly from the donor country to the receiver country as bilateral aid. Most of this bilateral aid is tied which means that it is given for a particular project.
All aid has their advantages and disadvantages but aid in fact, carries with it some very serious problems for the recipient country.
Papua New Guinea today gets all kinds of aid from many countries and aid agencies; however, because of their historical ties since independence Papua New Guinea has maintained these very close relations with Australia.
The Office of International Development Assistance (OIDA) within the Department of Finance is the governmentâs control over international aid entering Papua New Guinea.
Papua New Guinea negotiates bilateral aid with countries such as Australia, Japan, New Zealand, China, the United States of America and the developed countries of Europe.
The Multilateral aid is available to us from an increasing number of international organisations such as the various agencies of the United Nations, the European Community (EC), Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Commonwealth.
Influence of multinational companies, transnational CorporationsâŠ
International organisations with which Papua New Guinea was concerned included aid and, International Labour Organisation, and the International Monetary Fund.
In September 1976, the governmentsâ foreign policy was: âUniversalismâ.
In a major foreign policy shift in 1980, the government abandoned âuniversalismâ in favour of âselective engagementâ.
For historical, political, social and economic reasons, it was in the best interest of both Australia and PNG to have close ties.
Papua New Guinea and the New Zealand government established a diplomatic relationship in 1975.
In 1993 the Wingti government resolved to develop stronger contracts within Asian and South-Pacific countries and adopted the `Look North and Work the Pacific Policyâ.
Immediately after independence the Peoplesâ Republic of China and Papua New Guinea exchanged ambassadors. The Peoplesâ Republic of China had a âOne China Policyâ and it wanted all the countries with whom it had diplomatic missions to observe.
Papua New Guineaâs diplomatic relations with Japan consisted of an embassy in Tokyo, a Japanese embassy in Port Moresby and in 1988, a Papua New Guinea consul-general in Japan.
At independence, Papua New Guinea established a high commission in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia set a high commission in Port Moresby.
Between 1986 and 1995, Papua New Guinea consolidated its relationships with the smaller islands states in the South Pacific Region
The Melanesian Spearhead Group was formed in 1986 by the governments of Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands.
USAâs interest in Papua New Guinea was mainly strategic.
The Europe Union was preceded by the European Economic Community, of which Papua New Guinea became a full partner in November, 1978.
The main aid donors to PNG were Australia, Japan, Germany, USA, China, New Zealand, South Korea, and the World Bank group, the Asian Development Bank, the European Union and the United Nations.
There were six major types of foreign aid to the country: direct budgetary support grants; tied aid; micro-project grants; concessional loans; technical assistance; and ad hoc aid.
All countries have international trading relations and are therefore interdependent in trade.
Papua New Guinea like most developing countries, exports mainly raw materials and imports mainly manufactured or processed goods.
International trading relations can produce both co-operation and conflict between countries.
Much international trade is controlled by large international companies.
Developing countries want international trade to help them promote sustainable development of their resources.
Education (Outcome Based Education-OBE)
OBE is a process that focuses on learning outcomes that are measurable and achievable.
The PNG National Curriculum Statement defines outcome-based curriculum as a tool to be used to identify the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that all students should achieve at a particular grade in a particular subject.
Under the OBE model, education agencies may specify any skills and knowledge outcomes, but not inputs such s field trips, arrangement of the school day, and teaching styles.
An important by-product of this approach is that students are assessed against external, absolute objectives.
Under OBE, teachers can use any objective grading system they choose, including letter grades
Since the OBE introduction in PNG in 2003, it has been debated by students, parents, teachers, educational stakeholders and educational authorities.
A collective summary of reasons for the failed outcome-based education identifies that the Government of Papua New Guinea accepted and implemented the outcome-based education without considering aspects of adequate facilities, relevant teaching and learning materials, and trained specialist teachers to teach the content of newly introduced subjects.
The lack of knowledge and understanding of the implementation process was a contributing factor to the failure of OBE.
Teachers and facilitators lacked the ability to understand how they can translate the theory and philosophy of outcome based education into practical action in their instructional planning, teaching and assessment of student learning.
The International Education Agency curriculum has always been an outcome based education.
The basic goal of traditional education was to present the knowledge and skills of the old generation to the new generation of students, and to provide students with an environment in which to learn.
Impact of Globalisation
Globalisation is the process of international combination of trading, exchange and transaction of world views, products, ideas, and aspects of culture.
Environmental problems such as global warming, water and air pollution, and over
fishing are linked with globalisation.
Globalisation affects and are affected by business and work organisation, economics, socio-cultural resources, and the natural environment.
Globalisation has been going on since the first humans migrated from the African continent into Europe, Asia, and other parts of the globe
Trade involves exchanging goods and services from one person to another, or community to another.
Economic globalisation has been very rapid in terms of communications, which is starting to reach rural areas in PNG.
The effects of globalisation can be disastrous for indigenous people and particularly, for their languages.
Language, technology and globalisation can be damaging to indigenous populations but it also promises opportunities.
Globalisation of trade and investment, including freedom of movement and ideas is generally beneficial and provides improved opportunities, but, there are disadvantages and there is need for awareness, caution and standards.
Role of IMF, World Bank, Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries, (OPEC)
There are important differences and similarities between the World Bank and the IMF.
The World Bank and the IMF are international leaders in supporting the worldâs economic and financial structure.
The IMF and the World Bank are different in these ways: have a different purpose, and structure; receives its funding from different sources, assists different groups of members, and strives to achieve distinct goals.
The IMF is a global organisation founded at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944.
The IMF aims to help stabilise exchange rates and provide loans to countries in need.
Nearly all members of the United Nations are members of the IMF with a few exceptions such as Cuba, Lichtenstein and Andorra.
The IMF is financed by member countries who contribute funds on joinin
The IMF helps developing nations to overcome monetary challenges and maintain a stable international financial system.
The World Bank was established in December 1945 at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. It opened for business in June 1946 and helped in the reconstruction of nations devastated by World War II. Since 1960s the World Bank has shifted its focus from the advanced industrialised countries to developing third-world countries.
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programs.
The World Bank is made up of two institutions: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the International Development Association
World Bank provides loans for development works to member countries, and long-term loans for various development projects of 5 to 20 years period.
The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries is a group of 14 of the world's major oil-exporting nations.
OPEC was founded in 1960 to coordinate the petroleum policies of its members, and to provide member states with technical and economic aid.
OPEC has played a major role in the ways oil is sold, purchased and to a certain extent consumed, especially at their peak in the 1970s.
Migration of people
Migration means moving from one place to another.
Human migration is the movement of people from one place in the world to take up permanent or semi-permanent residence, usually across a political boundary.
There are different types of migration in history.
There are people from all walks of life that migrate.
Human migration affects population, social and cultural patterns and processes, economies, and physical environments.
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