Belgium in the world

Belgium: insignificant in the world?

• just a dot on the world map? too small to play a role in international politics?

  • strict political neutrality = precondition for independence after Belgian revolution

  • but…

• strong realization after 2 WWs

  • country can only fare well if it maintains good relations with neighbors

  • safety and economic prosperity through multilateral diplomacy

    • !! multilateral: agreements with more than 2 countries

    • !!! diplomacy

• two places where Belgium has played a significant and proactive role: Africa (Congo) and European integration

or not?

Belgium in Africa

King Leopold II wants a colony

• end 19th c: scramble for Africa

  • European imperialism

  • everything occupied unless Central-Africa: still terra incognita

• king Leopold II actively seeks a colony

  • waining political influence in Belgium

  • greed and megalomaniac (unnaturally strong wish for power and control, or someone who thinks they are more important than they really are) economic and political ambitions

• Belgian political elites: not interested

  • neutrality

  • focus on internal economic development + trade with neighbors

  • no history of overseas territories

  • colonies cost money

• Leopold II looks at different options for colonies, but he’s not taken seriously

• an explorer sent from New York explores Central-Africa and catches Leopold II’s eye and eventually when other coutnries aren’t convinced about the territories so Leopold II asks the explorer to create free trade stations (basically safe havens from which armed men captivate the territories around these stations and stop resistance from the people there

  • the explorer also established treaties with the native population (basically the recognition of Leopold II as sovereign ruler)

King Leopold II gains control over Congo-Freestate

• 1885: colonial conference of Berlin

  • European countries divide Africa

  • Great powers let Leopold II acquire Congo

    • power balance (great powers need to have equal power if they don’t want conflict)

    • promise of free trade → all great powers will benefit

    • personal project: Belgian state not involved

• Leopold gains control over Congo-Freestate

  • he had never even set foot in Congo

  • reigns as absolute monarch

  • no contitution, no international supervision, no protection of human rights

Congo under Leopold II

• Congo-Freestate soon appears very lucrative

  • ivory adn rubber trade; end 19th c: growing demand for rubber

• personal enrichment

  • no international free trade → entire Congo becomes Royal Domain

  • personal project but financial ties with Belgian state

    • investments in railways, interest-free loans…

    • prestige projects in Brussels, Ostend…

• Force Publique

  • official army force of Congo-Freestate, led by white officers

  • initially: explore and conquer → keep order, break local resistances, enforce labor

  • violence adn reign of terror

• growing international protest against Leopold II

  • exploitation of Congolese population: violence, torture, mutilations, executions

  • reign of terror → reach rubber quota, intensify yields and profits

  • millions of people died: violence, territorial conquests, diseases, hunger

  • gruesome reports adn pictures cause international outrage: but also economic interests (no free trade)

• after a series of parliamentary debates, the Belgian state takes over Congo (1908)

Belgian Congo

• end of extreme excesses

  • ban on forced labor, but lack of control

  • ministry of colonies + parliamentary oversight

• Congo still seen as an economic asset

  • general national investment company arranged the trade with Congo

  • opportunities for Belgian companies + free trade

  • bad work and life conditions

• only later: investments in education, health care and social conditions

  • catholic missions

  • colonial paternalism: civilization and European ay of life (Expo 1958, human zoo with Congolese people)

  • political rights and social/racial equality: not on the agenda

the independence of Congo

• Belgium becomes defender of colony (economic interests)

  • despite colonization in other coutnries + requests UN

  • limited investments in Congolese future (training of political elites, creation of democratic institutions)

• surprised by rise in Congolese nationalism

  • violent riots change Belgian position → very rapid decolonization

  • within months: democratic elections → president Kasavubu and PM Lumumba

• independence ceremonies

  • insensitive and patronizing speech by king Baudouin with a strong reaction by Lumumba = start of a troubled relations

• Rapid and ill-prepared decolonization → chaos and violent start

• shortly after independence: congo crisis

  • mutiny in Congolese army (Belgian victims) → Belgium sends troops

  • provinces of Katanga and Kasai secede (with Belgian support)

  • Lumumba calls for help → UN deploys peacekeeping army

• military coup by Mobutu

  • cold war: impasse between Kasavubu and Lumumba (Western distrust)

  • military chief of staff Mobutu seize power

  • Lumumba arrested and killed

the Mobutu regime

• political stability at a high cost

  • Mobutu rules as dictator

  • corruption, self-enrichment, poverty among population

  • but Western support: stability, anti-communist, economic interests

• end of cold war → Mobutu loses Western support

  • growing resentment among population

• Belgium actively tries to help new regime in process of democratization

  • drafting constitution, organizint elections, building unified Congolese army

troubled diplomatic relations

• troubled history explains Belgium’s foreign policy towards Africa in recent years

  • sense of responsibility, but also reluctance

    • Congolese leaders want Belgium to respect autonomy and move away from paternalistic past

• torn between active and reluctant participation

  • Belgium puts pressure on Kabila regime to ban corruption (development aid)

  • Congolese leaders do not wish to receive patronizing lessons from former colonizer

  • regularly leads to troubled diplomatic relations

  • same applies to Rwanda-Burundi (Belgian territories after WW I)

Rwanda

• Rwandan genocide: dual position of Belgiuù

• colonizers (Germany then Belgium) had long cultivated divisions between ethnic groups

  • tutsi minority and hutu majority

• independence: hutu win elections and take over power: many tutsi flee the country, later group in Uganda → attacks + attempts to return

• conflict culminates in 1990s

  • Rwandan president assassinated

  • start of mass killings: mostly tutsi killed in genocide

• Belgian troops present in Rwanda at start: part of UN peacekeeping army

  • feeling of responsibility + expertise on the ground

  • but: Belgian troops killed and held responsible for assassination of Rwandan presidnt and divisions

  • UN troops withdraw → conflict further breaks loose

• parliamentary investigation committee in 1997

  • Belgium should no longer participate in military operations in former colonies

today?

• normalization of diplomatic relations under new Congolese president

• calls for decolonization in public places

Belgium in the EU

• Belgium: a founding member of the EU

• post WWII era: initiatives of founding EU were the same as Belgium’s stances in international politics

and Europe in Belgium

• European integration: incremental process

  • negotiations of international treaties

  • more competences and power to EU level

• not without discussion: transfer of antional sovereignty

• Belgium: European project is practically uncontested

  • early membership

  • small country: too small to make a difference on its own

  • Belgian economy needs export markets(without import tariffs)

  • EU = Brussles

  → active defender of depper supranational integration

• Europe not really contested in Belgium

  • Vlaams Belang: soft euroscepticism

  • N-VA: Eurorealism (strong EU that focuses on internal market, safety and protection of European bordes)

  • PVDA-PTB: doesn’t really question the EU, but its policies

European institutions in Brussels

• Brussels as (non-official) capital of EU?

• home of: many EU institutions

• thousands of jobs: direct and indirect

• there was some disagreement and discussion over the location for the institutions and the disagreement maintains, so they came up with a rotation system

• why Brussels

  • central, small country, transportation links, heart Benelux, bilingual, more animosity against other countries so the least contested option

the art of compromise

• finding agreement among member states

  • different interests and positions = difficult

• Belgium: experts in reconciling diverging interests (federalism, consociationalism)

  • art of Belgium compromises also valued in international context

  • 2 (out of 3) EU council presidents were Belgians (former PMs)

the regions and the communities in the world

• simultaneous to European integration: Belgian state reforms

• matters transferred to EU often relate to competences of the regions and communities

  • who represents Belgium in council of ministers?

  • federal ministers? sub-state minister? of which region/community?

• principle of in foro interno, in foro externo: your competence internally = your competence externally

  • regional competence → regions responsible for international relations

  • example: education = community comeptence → communities represent Belgium in council

  • both federal and sub-state matters → 2 representatives

    • spokesperson and assessor (advice + replacement)

  • rotation system

• EU institutions allow for presence of sub-state representatives

  • regional/community ministers can attend council meetings

  • however: they must represent the entire state (thus also the other regions)

• creates a paradox

  • competences were regionalized to defuse conflict

  • but regions/communities increasingly have to cooperate to take joint positions in the EU

• directorate of European affairs (federal ministry of foreign affairs)

  • responsible for coordination between federal government, regions and communities

  • majority of cases: agreement reached between civil servants/staff members

  • occasionally: negotiations among ministers

  • no agreement = abstention

international trade missions

• international trade

  • used to be a federal competence

  • international missions to promote Belgian export and attract foreign investments

  • king (symbolic), ministers, CEOs…

• regional competence since last state reform

  • regions now responsible for export and investments

  • difficult to brand themselves abroad

  • therefore: missions often still led by member of Royal family

    • status, more recognizable Belgian brand

NATO/UN

• defense/international security → still at federal level

• Belgium = founding member of NATO

  • headquarters in Brussels

  • but: Belgium has never been important military force

  • supports attempts to create European army and defense policy

• multilateral international interventions

  • focus on humanitarian aid

  • low-profile military activities

• but also bilateral cooperation (France, Netherlands, Luxemburg)

  • purchase and maintenance of military material, protection of air space…