201. Hamilton-Burr duel: After Burr lost to Jefferson as a Republican, he switched to the Federalist party and ran for governor of New York. When  he lost, he blamed Hamilton (a successful Federalist politician) of making defamatory remarks that cost him the election. Burr challenged  Hamilton to a duel, in which Hamilton was killed on July 11, 1804. 

202. Burr expedition, treason trial: After the duel, Burr fled New York and joined a group of mercenaries in the southern Louisiana territory region.  The U.S. arrested them as they moved towards Mexico. Burr claimed that they had intended to attack Mexico, but the U.S. believed  that they were actually trying to get Mexican aid to start a secession movement in the territories. Burr was tried for treason, and although  Jefferson advocated Burr’s punishment, the Supreme Court acquitted Burr. 

203. Lewis and Clark expedition and its findings: 1804-1806 - Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were commissioned by Jefferson to map and  explore the Louisiana Purchase region. Beginning at St. Louis, Missouri, the expedition travelled up the Missouri River to the Great  Divide, and then down the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. It produced extensive maps of the area and recorded many scientific  discoveries, greatly facilitating later settlement of the region and travel to the Pacific coast. 

204. Second Great Awakening: A series of religious revivals starting in 1801, based on Methodism and Baptism. Stressed a religious philosophy of  salvation through good deeds and tolerance for all Protestant sects. The revivals attracted women, Blacks, and Native Americans. 205. Charles Wilson Peale (1741-1827): An American naturalist painter. 

206. Northwest posts: British fur-trading posts in the Northwest territory. Their presence in the U.S. led to continued British-American conflicts. 207. Barbary pirates: The name given to several renegade countries on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa who demanded tribute in exchange  for refraining from attacking ships in the Mediterranean. From 1795-1801, the U.S. paid the Barbary states for protection against the  pirates. Jefferson stopped paying the tribute, and the U.S. fought the Barbary Wars (1801-1805) against the countries of Tripoli and  Algeria. The war was inconclusive and the U.S. went back to paying the tribute. 

208. Chesapeake-Leopard Affair: 1807 - The American ship Chesapeake refused to allow the British on the Leopard to board to look for deserters.  In response, the Leopard fired on the Chesapeake. As a result of the incident, the U.S. expelled all British ships from its waters until Britain  issued an apology.  

209. Embargo of 1807, opposition: This act issued by Jefferson forbade American trading ships from leaving the U.S. It was meant to force Britain  and France to change their policies towards neutral vessels by depriving them of American trade. It was difficult to enforce because it was  opposed by merchants and everyone else whose livelihood depended upon international trade. It also hurt the national economy, so it was  replaced by the Non-Intercourse Act. 

210. Non-Intercourse Act: 1809 - Replaced the Embargo of 1807. Unlike the Embargo, which forbade American trade with all foreign nations, this  act only forbade trade with France and Britain. It did not succeed in changing British or French policy towards neutral ships, so it was  replaced by Macon’s Bill No. 2. 

211. Macon’s Bill No. 2: 1810 - Forbade trade with Britain and France, but offered to resume trade with whichever nation lifted its neutral trading  restrictions first. France quickly changed its policies against neutral vessels, so the U.S. resumed trade with France, but not Britain. 212. Tecumseh (1763-1813): A Shawnee chief who, along with his brother, Tenskwatawa, a religious leader known as The Prophet, worked to unite  the Northwestern Indian tribes. The league of tribes was defeated by an American army led by William Henry Harrison at the Battle of  Tippecanoe in 1811. Tecumseh was killed fighting for the British during the War of 1812 at the Battle of the Thames in 1813. 213. War of 1812 (1812-1814): A war between the U.S. and Great Britain caused by American outrage over the impressment of American sailors by  the British, the British seizure of American ships, and British aid to the Indians attacking the Americans on the western frontier. Also, a  war against Britain gave the U.S. an excuse to seize the British northwest posts and to annex Florida from Britain’s ally Spain, and possibly  even to seize Canada from Britain. The War Hawks (young westerners led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun) argued for war in 

Congress. The war involved several sea battles and frontier skirmishes. U.S. troops led by Andrew Jackson seized Florida and at one point  the British managed to invade and burn Washington, D.C. The Treaty of Ghent (December 1814) restored the status quo and required the  U.S. to give back Florida. Two weeks later, Andrew Jackson’s troops defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans, not knowing that a  peace treaty had already been signed. The war strengthened American nationalism and encouraged the growth of industry. 

214. Impressment: British seamen often deserted to join the American merchant marines. The British would board American vessels in order to  retrieve the deserters, and often seized any sailor who could not prove that he was an American citizen and not British. 215. War Hawks: Western settlers who advocated war with Britain because they hoped to acquire Britain’s northwest posts (and also Florida or even  Canada) and because they felt the British were aiding the Indians and encouraging them to attack the Americans on the frontier. In  Congress, the War Hawks were Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. 

216. Causes of the War of 1812: These included: British impressment of sailors, British seizure of neutral American trading ships, and the reasons  given by the War Hawks (the British were inciting the Indians on the frontier to attack the Americans, and the war would allow the U.S. to  seize the northwest posts, Florida, and possibly Canada). 

217. Federalist opposition to the War of 1812: The Federalist party was composed of New England merchants who wanted good relations with  Britain & free trade. New England merchants met at Hartford Convention to protest war and the U.S. government’s restrictions on trade. 218. Naval engagements in the War of 1812: The U.S. won important battles on Great Lakes but failed to break the British blockade of the U.S. 219. Fort McHenry, Francis Scott Key, "Star Spangled Banner": Francis Scott Key saw Fort McHenry hold out during the night against a British  attack. He wrote the poem "Star Spangled Banner" about the experience of seeing the U.S. flag still flying above the fort in the morning,  and the poem was later set to the tune of an old English bar song. 

220. Events of the War of 1812: Perry, Lake Erie, D.C., New Orleans: Oliver Perry led a 1813 naval victory against the British on Lake Erie.  Washington D.C. was captured and burned by the British in 1814. The Battle of New Orleans was a great victory for the U.S. in January,  1815, but it took place two weeks after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent had ended the war. 

221. Jackson’s victory at New Orleans: January, 1815 - A large British invasion force was repelled by Andrew Jackson’s troops at New Orleans.  Jackson had been given the details of the British army’s battle plans by the French pirate, Jean Laffite. About 2500 British soldiers were  killed or captured, while in the American army only 8 men were killed. Neither side knew that the Treaty of Ghent had ended the War of  1812 two weeks before the battle. This victory inspired American nationalism. 

222. Hartford Convention, resolution: December 1814 - A convention of New England merchants who opposed the Embargo and other trade  restriction, and the War of 1812. They proposed some Amendments to the Constitution and advocated the right of states to nullify federal  laws. They also discussed the idea of seceding from the U.S. if their desires were ignored. The Hartford Convention turned public  sentiment against the Federalists and led to the demise of the party. 

223. Treaty of Ghent: December 24, 1814 - Ended the War of 1812 and restored the status quo. For the most part, territory captured in the war was  returned to the original owner. It also set up a commission to determine the disputed Canada/U.S. border. 

224. War of 1812 increased nationalism and economic independence: The U.S.’s success in the War of 1812 gave Americans a feeling of national  pride, cut off America’s access to British manufactured goods and forced the U.S. to develop the means to produce those goods on its own. 225. Clay’s American System: Proposed after the War of 1812, it included using federal money for internal improvements (roads, bridges, industrial  improvements, etc.), enacting a protective tariff to foster the growth of American industries, and strengthening the national bank. 226. Changes and improvements in transportation and its effect: These included canals in the Great Lakes region, toll roads, steamboats, and  clipper ships. The result was faster trade and easier access to the western frontier. It aided the growth of the nation. 

227. Second bank of the U.S., a reversal of Jeffersonian ideas: As a Republican, Jefferson opposed the National Bank. The Second Bank of the  U.S. was established in 1816 and was given more authority than the First Bank of the U.S. Bank loans were used to finance the American  industrial revolution in the period after the War of 1812. 

228. Tariff of 1816 – Protective: This protective tariff helped American industry by raising the prices of cheaper British manufactured goods. 229. Jackson in Florida: 1817 - The Seminole Indians in Florida, encouraged by the Spanish, launched a series of raids into the U.S. President J. Q.  Adams ordered Andrew Jackson, whose troops were on the U.S./Florida border, to seize Spanish forts in northern Florida. Jackson’s  successful attacks convinced the Spanish that they could not defend Florida against the U.S. 1819 - Under the Adams-Onis Treaty, Spain  sold Florida to the U.S., and the U.S. gave up its claims to Texas. 

230. Era of Good Feelings: A name for President Monroe’s two terms, a period of strong nationalism, economic growth, and territorial expansion.  Since the Federalist party dissolved after the War of 1812, there was only one political party and no partisan conflicts. 231. Growth of industry in New England, textiles: The industrial revolution had occurred in England in the 1700s, but it was not until the period  

industrial growth after the War of 1812 that the U.S. began to manufacture goods with the aid of factories and machines. New England,  rather than the South, emerged as a manufacturing center because New England had many rivers to supply water power, plus a better  system of roads and canals. The first major industry in New England was textiles. 

232. Samuel Slater (1768-1835): When he emigrated from England to America in the 1790s, he brought with him the plans to an English factory.  With these plans, he helped build the first factory in America. 

233. Robert Fulton, Clermont: A famous inventor, who designed and built America’s first steamboat, the Clermont in 1807.  234. Eli Whitney: cotton gin (short for "engine"): 1798 - He developed the cotton gin, a machine which could separate cotton form its seeds. This  invention made cotton a profitable crop of great value to the Southern economy and reinforced the importance of slavery in the economy. 235. Interchangeable parts: 1799-1800 - Eli Whitney developed a manufacturing system which uses standardized parts which are all identical and  thus, interchangeable. Before this, each part of a given device had been designed only for that one device; if a single piece of the device  broke, it was difficult or impossible to replace. With standardized parts, it was easy to get a replacement part from the manufacturer.  Whitney first put used standardized parts to make muskets for the U.S. government. 

236. Boston Associates, Lowell, Massachusetts: The Boston Associates were a group of Boston businessmen who built the first power loom. In  1814 in Waltham, Massachusetts, they opened a factory run by Lowell. Their factory made cloth so cheaply that women began to buy it  rather than make it themselves. 

237. Daniel Webster (1782-1852): Great American orator who gave several important speeches as a Mass. Congressman. He was a major representative  of the North in pre-Civil War Senate debates, just as Sen. John C. Calhoun was the representative of the South in that time. 238. National Road (also called Cumberland Road): The first highway built by the federal government. Constructed during 1825-1850, it stretched  from Pennsylvania to Illinois. It was a major overland shipping route and an important connection between the North and the West. 239. Internal improvements: The program for building roads, canals, bridges, and railroads in and between the states. There was a dispute over whether  the federal government should fund internal improvements, since it was not specifically given that power by the Constitution. 240. Erie Canal: 1825 - The Erie canal was opened as a toll waterway connecting New York to the Great Lakes. Along with the Cumberland Road, it  helped connect the North and the West.

241. John Quincy Adams as Sec. of State: Florida, Monroe Doctrine: He served under president Monroe. In 1819, he drew up the Adams-Onis Treaty  in which Spain gave the U.S. Florida in exchange for U.S. dropping its claims to Texas. The Monroe Doctrine was mostly Adams’ work. 242. Election of 1824:: Jackson, Adams, Crawford, Clay: Popular vote: Jackson - 152,933 (42%), Adams - 115,626 (32%), Clay - 47,136 (13%),  Crawford - 46,979 (13%). Electoral vote: Jackson - 99, Adams - 84, Crawford - 41, Clay - 37. House vote: Adams - 13, Jackson - 7,  Crawford - 4, Clay - dropped. Jackson did not have a majority in the electoral vote, so the election went to the House of Representatives,  where Adams won. 

243. "Corrupt Bargain": The charge make by Jacksonians in 1825 that Clay had supported John Quincy Adams in the House presidential vote in return  for the office of Secretary of State. Clay knew he could not win, so he traded his votes for an office. 

244. Tariff of Abominations: 1828 - Also called Tariff of 1828, it raised the tariff on imported manufactured goods. The tariff protected the North but  harmed the South; South said that the tariff was economically discriminatory and unconstitutional because it violated state's rights. It  passed because New England favored high tariffs. 

245. Vice-President Calhoun: South Carolina Exposition and protest, nullification: Vice-President Calhoun anonymously published the essay South  Carolina Exposition, which proposed that each state in the union counter the tyranny of the majority by asserting the right to nullify an  unconstitutional act of Congress. It was written in reaction to the Tariff of 1828, which he said placed the Union in danger and stripped the  South of its rights. South Carolina had threatened to secede if the tariff was not revoked; Calhoun suggested state nullification as a more  peaceful solution. 

246. Jacksonian Revolution of 1828: When Andrew Jackson was elected president from humble beginnings, people thought he could make the American  Dream come true. Jackson appointed common people to government positions. Jefferson's emphasis on farmers’ welfare gave way to  Jackson's appeal to city workers, small businessmen, and farmers. Jackson was the first non-aristocrat to be elected president. Jackson's  election was the revolution of the "Common Man". 

247. Age of the Common Man: Jackson's presidency was the called the Age of the Common Man. He felt that government should be run by common  people - a democracy based on self-sufficient middle class with ideas formed by liberal education and a free press. All white men could  now vote, and the increased voting rights allowed Jackson to be elected. 

248. Jacksonian Democracy: The Jacksonian era (1829-1841) included many reforms: free public schools, more women's rights, better working  conditions in factories, and the rise of the Abolition movement. In the election, Jackson was portrayed as a common man and his opponent,  J.Q. Adams, was attacked for his aristocratic principles. Electors in the electoral college were also chosen by popular vote. Common man,  nationalism, National Nominating Conventions. 

249. Franchise extended, spoils system: Franchise extended - more people were given the right to vote, even men who owned no land. Spoils system - "To the victor go the spoils" - the winner of the election may do whatever they want with the staff. Jackson made more staff changes than  any previous president, firing many people and replacing them with his own. 

250. National Republicans: After the 1824 election, part of the Democratic - Republican party joined John Q. Adams, Clay, and Daniel Webster to  oppose Andrew Jackson. They favored nationalistic measures like recharter of the Bank of the United States, high tariffs, and internal  improvements at national expense. They were supported mainly by Northwesterners and were not very successful. They were conservatives  alarmed by Jackson's radicalness; they joined with the Whigs in the 1830's. 

251. Caucus System, Nation Nominating Conventions: In the National Nominating Convention, delegates voted on the results of a primary. In the  Caucus System, candidates were elected by small, secretive party groups and the public had little say in the process. 

252. Kitchen Cabinet: A small group of Jackson's friends and advisors who were especially influential in the first years of his presidency. Jackson conferred with them instead of his regular cabinet. Many people didn't like Jackson ignoring official procedures, and called it the "Kitchen  Cabinet" or "Lower Cabinet". 

253. Cherokee Indian removal, "Trail of Tears": A minority of the Cherokee tribe, despite the protest of the majority, had surrendered their Georgia  land in the 1835 Treaty of New Echota. During the winter of 1838 - 1839, troops under General Winfield Scott evicted them from their  homes in Georgia and moved them to Oklahoma Indian country. Many died on the trail; the journey became known as the "Trail of Tears". 

254. Worchester v. Georgia; Cherokee Nation v. Georgia: Worchester v. Georgia: 1832 - The Supreme Court decided Georgia had no jurisdiction over  Cherokee reservations. Georgia refused to enforce decision and President Jackson didn't support the Court. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia:  1831 - The Supreme Court ruled that Indians weren't independent nations but dependent domestic nations which could be regulated by the  federal government. From then until 1871, treaties were formalities with the terms dictated by the federal government. 

255. Whigs: origins, policies: Whigs were conservatives and popular with pro-Bank people and plantation owners. They mainly came from the National  Republican Party, which was once largely Federalists. They took their name from the British political party that had opposed King George  during the American Revolution. Among the Whigs were Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and, for a while, Calhoun. Their policies included  support of industry, protective tariffs, and Clay's American System. They were generally upper class in origin. 

256. Maysville Road Veto: 1830 - The Maysville Road Bill proposed building a road in Kentucky (Clay's state) at federal expense. Jackson vetoed it  because he didn't like Clay, and Martin Van Buren pointed out that NY and Penn paid for their transportation improvements with state  money. Applied strict interpretation of the Constitution by saying that the federal government could not pay for internal improvements. 

257. Election of 1832, Anti-Masonic Party: Andrew Jackson (Democrat) ran for re-election with V.P. Martin Van Buren. The main issue was his veto of  the recharter of the U.S. Bank, which he said was a monopoly. Henry Clay (Whig), who was pro-Bank, ran against him The Anti-Masonic  Party nominated William Wirt. This was the first election with a national nominating convention. Jackson won - 219 to Clay's 49 and  Wirt's 1. The Masons were a semi-secret society devoted to libertarian principles to which most educated or upper-class men of the  Revolutionary War era belonged. The Anti-Masons sprang up as a reaction to the perceived elitism of the Masons, and the new party took  votes from the Whigs, helping Jackson to win the election. 

258. Clay, Bank Recharter Bill, Nicholas Biddle: The Bank of the United States was chartered by Congress in 1791; it held government funds and was  also commercial. It wasn't rechartered in 1811, but a second bank was established in 1816 (1/5 government owned). Jackson opposed it,  saying it drove other banks out of business and favored the rich, but Clay favored it. Nicholas Biddle became the bank's president. He made  the bank's loan policy stricter and testified that, although the bank had enormous power, it didn't destroy small banks. The bank went out of  business in 1836 amid controversy over whether the National Bank was constitutional and should be rechartered. 

259. Peggy Eaton Affair: Social scandal (1829-1831) - John Eaton, Secretary of War, stayed with the Timberlakes when in Washington, and there were  rumors of his affair with Peggy Timberlake even before her husband died in 1828. Many cabinet members snubbed the socially  unacceptable Mrs. Eaton. Jackson sided with the Eatons, and the affair helped to dissolve the cabinet - especially those members associated  with John C. Calhoun (V.P.), who was against the Eatons and had other problems with Jackson. 

260. Calhoun resigns as vice-president: 1832 - Calhoun, from South Carolina, wrote the doctrine of nullification, expressing his views in support of  states' rights. His views were so disputed and so different from Jackson's that Calhoun resigned and was appointed senator in South  Carolina to present their case to Congress.

261. South opposes protective tariffs (Tariff of Abominations): The North wanted tariffs that protected new industries, but the agricultural Southern  states depended on cheap imports of manufactured goods and only wanted tariffs for revenue. The South strongly opposed protective tariffs  like the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832, and protested by asserting that enforcement of the tariffs could be prohibited by individual states, and by  refusing to collect tariff duties. 

262. Nullification crisis, South Carolina Exposition and Protest: When faced with the protective Tariff of 1828, John Calhoun presented a theory in the  South Carolina Exposition and Protest (1828) that federal tariffs could be declared null and void by individual states and that they could  refuse to enforce them. South Carolina called a convention in 1832, after the revised Tariff of 1828 became the Tariff of 1832, and passed  an ordinance forbidding collection of tariff duties in the state. This was protested by Jackson. 

263. Jefferson Day Dinner: toasts and quotes: April 13, 1830 - At the Jefferson anniversary dinner, President Jackson toasted, "Our federal union! It must and shall be preserved!" making it clear to the nullifiers that he would resist the states' rights supporters' claim to nullify the tariff law.  V.P. Calhoun's response to the toast was, "The union, next to our liberty, most dear. May we always remember that it can only be preserved  by distributing evenly the benefits and burdens of the Union." Calhoun had wanted Jackson to side with him (for states' rights) in public,  but he didn't succeed. 

264. Clay: Compromise Tariff of 1833: Henry Clay devised the Compromise Tariff of 1833 which gradually reduced the rates levied under the Tariffs of  1828 and 1832. It caused South Carolina to withdraw the ordinance nullifying the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832. Both protectionists and anti protectionists accepted the compromise. 

265. Force Bill: 1833 - The Force Bill authorized President Jackson to use the army and navy to collect duties on the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832. South Carolina's ordinance of nullification had declared these tariffs null and void, and South Carolina would not collect duties on them. The  Force Act was never invoked because it was passed by Congress the same day as the Compromise Tariff of 1833, so it became  unnecessary. South Carolina also nullified the Force Act. 

266. Specie Circular: 1863 - The Specie Circular, issued by President Jackson July 11, 1836, was meant to stop land speculation caused by states printing  paper money without proper specie (gold or silver) backing it. The Circular required that the purchase of public lands be paid for in specie.  It stopped the land speculation and the sale of public lands went down sharply. The panic of 1837 followed. 

267. Panic of 1837: When Jackson was president, many state banks received government money that had been withdrawn from the Bank of the U.S.  These banks issued paper money and financed wild speculation, especially in federal lands. Jackson issued the Specie Circular to force the  payment for federal lands with gold or silver. Many state banks collapsed as a result. A panic ensued (1837). Bank of the U.S. failed, cotton  prices fell, businesses went bankrupt, and there was widespread unemployment and distress. 

268. Election of 1840: William Henry Harrison and V.P. John Tyler - Whig - 234 votes. Martin Van Buren - Democrat - 60 votes. James G. Birney - Liberty Party - 0 votes. Panic of 1837 and a coming depression kept Van Buren from being reelected. Whigs rejected Clay, nominated  military hero Harrison with the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler too". They depicted Van Buren as living in luxury and Harrison as a "log  cabin and hard cider" guy, which wasn't entirely true. 

269. Rise of the Second Party System: Since the 1840's, two major political parties have managed to eliminated all competition. Democrats and  Republicans have controlled nearly all government systems since the 1840's. 

270. Transcendentalism: A philosophy pioneered by Ralph Waldo Emerson in the 1830's and 1840's, in which each person has direct communication  with God and Nature, and there is no need for organized churches. It incorporated the ideas that mind goes beyond matter, intuition is  valuable, that each soul is part of the Great Spirit, and each person is part of a reality where only the invisible is truly real. Promoted  individualism, self-reliance, and freedom from social constraints, and emphasized emotions. 

271. Transcendentalists: Believed in Transcendentalism, they included Emerson (who pioneered the movement) and Thoreau. Many of them formed  cooperative communities such as Brook Farm and Fruitlands, in which they lived and farmed together with the philosophy as their guide.  "They sympathize with each other in the hope that the future will not always be as the past." It was more literary than practical - Brook  Farm lasted only from 1841 to 1847. 

272. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882): Essayist, poet. A leading transcendentalist, emphasizing freedom and self-reliance in essays which still make  him a force today. He had an international reputation as a first-rate poet. He spoke and wrote many works on the behalf of the Abolitionists. 273. Henry David Thoreau, Walden (1817-1862), "On Civil Disobedience": A transcendentalist and friend of Emerson. He lived alone on Walden  Pond with only $8 a year from 1845-1847 and wrote about it in Walden. In his essay, "On Civil Disobedience," he inspired social and  political reformers because he had refused to pay a poll tax in protest of slavery and the Mexican-American War, and had spent a night in  jail. He was an extreme individualist and advised people to protest by not obeying laws (passive resistance). 

274. Margaret Fuller (1810-1815), The Dial: Social reformer, leader in women's movement and a transcendentalist. Edited The Dial (1840-1842),  which was the publication of the transcendentalists. It appealed to people who wanted "perfect freedom", "progress in philosophy and  theology . . . and hope that the future will not always be as the past." 

275. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851), The Spy, The Pioneers: American novelist. The Spy (1821) was about the American Revolution. The  Pioneers (1823) tells of an old scout returning to his boyhood home and is one of the Leatherstocking Tales, a series of novels about the  American frontier, for which Cooper was famous. (Leatherstocking is the scout.) Cooper later stayed in Europe for seven years, and when  he returned he was disgusted by American society because it didn't live up to his books. Cooper emphasized the independence of  individuals and importance of a stable social order. Last of the Mohicans (1826) - It is about a scout named Hawkeye during the French  and Indian War, while he was in his prime. It is one of the Leatherstocking Tales, about a frontiersman and a noble Indian, and the clash  between growing civilization and untamed wilderness. 

276. Herman Melville (1819-1891), Moby Dick: Wrote Moby Dick (1851) about a Captain Ahab who seeks revenge on the white whale that crippled  him but ends up losing his life, his ship, and his crew. Wasn't popular at the time but now highly regarded. Melville rejected the optimism  of the transcendentalists and felt that man faced a tragic destiny. Views were not popular at the time but were accepted by later generations. 

277. Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), The Scarlet Letter: Originally a transcendentalist; later rejected them and became a leading anti transcendentalist. He was a descendant of Puritan settlers. The Scarlet Letter shows the hypocrisy and insensitivity of New England  Puritans by showing their cruelty to a woman who has committed adultery and is forced to wear a scarlet "A". 

278. Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849): Author who wrote many poems and short stories including "The Raven," "The Bells," "The Tell-Tale Heart," and  "The Gold Bug." Originator of the detective story and a major influence on symbolism and surrealism. Best known for macabre stories. 279. Washington Irving (1783-1859): Author, diplomat. Wrote The Sketch Book, which included "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy  Hollow." He was the first American to be recognized in England (and elsewhere) as a writer. 

280. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882): Internationally recognized poet. Emphasized the value of tradition and the impact of the past on the  present. 

281. Walt Whitman (1819-1892), Leaves of Grass: Leaves of Grass (1855) was his first volume of poetry. He broke away from the traditional forms and  content of New England poetry by describing the life of working Americans and using words like "I reckon", "duds", and "folks". He loved 

people and expressed the new democracy of a nation finding itself. He had radical ideas and abolitionist views - Leaves of Grass was  considered immoral. Patriotic. 

282. Hudson River School of Art: In about 1825, a group of American painters, led by Thomas Cole, used their talents to do landscapes, which were not  highly regarded. They painted many scenes of New York's Hudson River. Mystical overtones. 

283. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America: De Tocqueville came from France to America in 1831. He observed democracy in government and  society. His book (written in two parts in 1835 and 1840) discusses the advantages of democracy and consequences of the majority's  unlimited power. First to raise topics of American practicality over theory, the industrial aristocracy, and the conflict between the masses  and individuals. 

284. "The Burned-Over District": Term applied to the region of western New York along the Erie Canal, and refers to the religious fervor of its  inhabitants. In the 1800's, farmers there were susceptible to revivalist and tent rallies by the Pentecostals (religious groups). 285. Charles G. Finney (1792-1875): An immensely successful revivalist of the 1800's. He helped establish the "Oberlin Theology". His emphasis on  "disinterested benevolence" helped shape the main charitable enterprises of the time. 

286. Mormons: Joseph Smith (1805-1844): Founded Mormonism in New York in 1830 with the guidance of an angel. In 1843, Smith's announcement  that God sanctioned polygamy split the Mormons and let to an uprising against Mormons in 1844. He translated the Book of Mormon and  died a martyr. 

287. Brigham Young, Great Salt Lake, Utah: 1847 - Brigham Young let the Mormons to the Great Salt Lake Valley in Utah, where they founded the  Mormon republic of Deseret. Believed in polygamy and strong social order. Others feared that the Mormons would act as a block,  politically and economically. 

288. Brook Farm: An experiment in Utopian socialism, it lasted for six years (1841-1847) in New Roxbury, Massachusetts. 289. New Harmony: A utopian settlement in Indiana lasting from 1825 to 1827. It had 1,000 settlers, but a lack of authority caused it to break up. 290. Oneida Community: A group of socio-religious perfectionists who lived in New York. Practiced polygamy, communal property, and communal  raising of children. 

291. Shakers: A millennial group who believed in both Jesus and a mystic named Ann Lee. Since they were celibate and could only increase their  numbers through recruitment and conversion, they eventually ceased to exist. 

292. Lyceum Movement: Developed in the 1800's in response to growing interest in higher education. Associations were formed in nearly every state to  give lectures, concerts, debates, scientific demonstrations, and entertainment. This movement was directly responsible for the increase in  the number of institutions of higher learning. 

293. Dorothea Dix, treatment of the insane: A reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill, beginning in the 1820's, she was  responsible for improving conditions in jails, poorhouses and insane asylums throughout the U.S. and Canada. She succeeded in persuading  many states to assume responsibility for the care of the mentally ill. She served as the Superintendant of Nurses for the Union Army during  the Civil War. 

294. Rise of labor leaders: During the 1800's, labor unions became more and more common. Their leaders sought to achieve the unions' goals through  political actions. Their goals included reduction in the length of the workday, universal education, free land for settlers, and abolition of  monopolies. Labor unions were the result of the growth of factories. 

295. National Trade Union: Unions formed by groups of skilled craftsmen. 

296. Commonwealth v. Hunt: 1842 - Case heard by the Massachusetts supreme court. The case was the first judgment in the U.S. that recognized that the  conspiracy law is inapplicable to unions and that strikes for a closed shop are legal. Also decided that unions are not responsible for the  illegal acts of their members. 

297. Oberlin, 1833; Mt. Holyoke, 1836: Oberlin: founded by a New England Congregationalist at Oberlin, Ohio. First coed facility at the college level.  The first to enroll Blacks in 1835. Mt. Holyoke: founded in 1837 in South Hadley, Massachusetts. Became the model for later liberal arts  institutions of higher education for women. Liberal colleges. 

298. Public education, Horace Mann: Secretary of the newly formed Massachusetts Board of Education, he created a public school system in  Massachusetts that became the model for the nation. Started the first American public schools, using European schools (Prussian military  schools) as models. 

299. American Temperance Union: The flagship of the temperance movement in the 1800's. Opposed alcohol. 

300. Maine Law, Neal Dow: In 1838, Dow founded the Maine Temperance Union. As mayor of Portland, Maine, Dow secured in 1851 the state's  passage the Maine Law, which forbade the sale or manufacture of liquor.