Chapter 1-9 Physiology Flashcards
Greek and Latin Roots and the Big Five
November CT review emphasis: Greek and Latin roots.
Examples mentioned:
Natrium and Calium: two of the four cations in the 'big five'.
Chloride: the only anion in the 'big five'.
CYT or CYTE: means cell.
Pathos: means disease in Greek.
The suffix -ology: denotes the study of something.
Big takeaway: You’ll be studying these roots and terms for life, with a strong emphasis on both direct and indirect Greek/Latin derivations.
Practical note from the lecturer: Extracorporeal (outside the body) is a key term, highlighting that language fluency in physiology matters for problem-solving.
Language roots, prefixes, suffixes, and example rules of thumb
-ology: the study of; e.g., physiology, dermatology.
cyt/cyt- or cyte: cell.
patho-: disease; pathos: disease.
Extracorporeal (ECMO context): outside the body; demonstrates the importance of knowing roots to understand medical language.
“RN” in lecture: used as a Roman numeral concept for exams (e.g., selecting numerals to answer questions).
Note: RN also stands for Registered Nurse in clinical contexts, but here it's a teaching device for Roman numerals and test-taking.
lithotripsy (kidney stone breakage): mentioned as a future topic with personal storytelling as a mnemonic device.
Two foundational principles of physiology emphasized
Principle 1: Physiological systems are connected.
Studying liver and kidney must consider their interactions and systemic context.
Principle 2: To understand living systems, study what happens when systems do not work perfectly.
This includes disease states, medical conditions, and death.
Guiding framework for Physiology 101: From normal function to disease to interventions (procedures and pharmacology).
Key clinical examples and applications discussed
Extracorporeal connections:
Language use tied to understanding clinical questions.
Not knowing a language impedes problem-solving in medicine.
CN/RN as mnemonic:
Discussion uses RN as a mnemonic for Roman numeral questions (e.g., on ultrasound).
Ultrasound review: Uterus, gallbladder, blood flow evaluation, needle guidance, breast lump, thyroid check, prostate/general exam.
There are seven items on the list, but not all are necessarily correct.
Emphasis on avoiding rote memorization and applying critical thinking.
Kidney stone pathophysiology:
Stone forms in kidney, can move to ureter.
Risk: urinary blockage leading to backflow and increased intrarenal pressure.
Kidney is encased in a capsule (renal capsule) — critical for understanding pain and potential rupture or obstruction.
If blockage occurs, urine can backflow toward the kidney.
The kidney is not compliant; high pressure equals pain.
Ultrasound slide review and exam strategy
Common ultrasound slide sequence reviewed:
Uterus
Gallbladder
Evaluate blood flow
Guide a needle
Breast lump
Thyroid exam
General/prostate issues
Seven items noted, but not all are necessarily correct; emphasis on critical thinking over memorization.
Lecturer's expectation: Students should capture these as notes and be prepared for theme-based questions, not just memorized lists.
Skeletal muscle control and exceptions
Skeletal muscle is not always voluntary; two notable exceptions:
Reflexes
Shivering
These are assumed to be involuntary muscle activity and are important when considering physiology in stress or thermoregulation contexts.
Clotting, liver, vitamin K, and cirrhosis connections
Clotting factors:
Originate largely from the liver.
Many clotting proteins end with -ogen (inactive precursors) and are activated in coagulation cascades.
Vitamin K:
A major clotting cofactor.
Name origins linked to Danish scientists; Danish word for coagulation starts with K.
Sources:
Some from diet.
A significant amount produced by bacteria in the lower gut (microbiome).
Stored in the liver.
Cirrhosis (liver scarring):
Complicates vitamin K storage and thus clotting ability.
Often associated with alcoholism.
Excessive scarring impairs coagulation and increases bleeding risk.
Red marrow, yellow marrow, and erythropoietin (EPO)
Two marrow types in bones:
Red marrow (active; produces red blood cells).
Yellow marrow (inactive; fat storage).
EPO (erythropoietin):
Produced by the kidney.
Stimulates red blood cell production in red marrow.
EPO and performance enhancement:
Lance Armstrong case discussed as a real-world example of blood doping by increasing red blood cell production.
Ethical and health implications noted (athletic performance vs. doping).
Link to kidney function: Kidney signals via EPO affect RBC production, influencing oxygen delivery and mitochondrial ATP production downstream.
Endocrinology basics: hormones and glucose regulation
Endocrinology: study of hormones.
Etymology:
Endo-: in, within.
-crine (from Greek kronos/secrete): to secrete.
The term endocrinology refers to hormones secreted into the bloodstream (endocrine system).
-ology: study of.
Four primary hormones that elevate blood glucose during hypoglycemia:
Cortisol.
Epinephrine (also called adrenaline; Greek origin “upon the kidney”; adrenal gland sits atop the kidney).
Glucagon (from pancreas; alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans; relates to Wagener-Haass in pancreas).
Growth hormone (from anterior pituitary).
Note on names: The lecturer notes there are five names because adrenaline and epinephrine are the same hormone but with different language origins (Greek vs. Latin).
Important principle: Hormones tend to have stronger systemic effects than neurotransmitters due to a higher concentration and broader receptor engagement at a given time (numbers game).
Glycolysis, brain energy, and red blood cells
Glycolysis overview:
Breaks one glucose (6 carbons) into two pyruvate molecules (3 carbons each).
ATP yield:
Gross ATP produced: 4.
Net ATP after ATP consumption at two steps: 2.
Two ATP consumed at steps: hexokinase (step 1) and phosphofructokinase (step 3).
Net ATP per glucose: ext{Net ATP} = 2.
Brain energy demand:
Brain uses roughly 20-30\% of total body oxygen consumption.
Brain uses about 20-30\% of total blood glucose.
Red blood cells (RBCs):
Lack mitochondria.
Therefore, glycolysis is the only pathway for ATP production in RBCs.
RBCs rely on glycolysis for energy.
Biochemical takeaway: Impairments in glucose availability affect brain and RBC function rapidly due to reliance on glycolysis and high energy demand.
Endocrine-hormone specifics and kidney-derived signals
Mineral and hormonal regulators relevant to hypoglycemia and metabolic balance:
Cortisol (adrenal cortex).
Epinephrine / Adrenaline (adrenal medulla; adrenal gland sits on the kidney).
Glucagon (pancreas; rises blood glucose by promoting glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis).
Growth hormone (anterior pituitary; anti-insulin effects in some tissues; supports glucose production during fasting).
EPO (erythropoietin) from kidney, stimulates RBC production.
Hormone vs. neurotransmitter potency: Hormones are generally stronger than neurotransmitters due to higher receptor occupancy and systemic reach at any given moment.
Neurophysiology: tissue types, membranes, and basics
Tissue classification (four main tissues):
Epithelial.
Connective.
Muscle.
Nervous.
Excitable tissues: Muscle and nervous tissues are excitable; epithelial and connective tissues are generally not excitable.
AP and RMP definitions:
AP = action potential.
RMP = resting membrane potential (inside of cell is negative relative to outside).
Skeletal muscle exceptions to voluntary control:
Reflexes.
Shivering.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) vs. Central Nervous System (CNS):
CNS includes brain and spinal cord.
PNS includes all nerves outside CNS; humans have 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
Two key nerves mentioned for later study:
Sciatic nerve.
Phrenic nerve.
Capillaries, edema, and lymphatics
Capillary bed characteristics:
Consist of a single endothelial cell layer in thickness, making exchange very efficient and the capillaries appear nearly transparent.
Site of gas, nutrient, and waste exchange.
Capillary beds are always leaky to some extent, even without injury.
Edema: Edema = swelling; results when fluid leaks out and accumulates in tissues.
Lymphatic system role:
Collects interstitial fluid (the leaked fluid) from capillary beds.
Drains fluid to lymph nodes, then to the thoracic duct, and finally into a vein in the neck (venous system).
Excretion vs. secretion terminology clarified:
Secretion: Release of a substance into a body compartment or bloodstream (positive connotation for function).
Excretion: Removal of waste products from the body (negative, elimination).
Excretory organs (four):
Skin (via sweat).
Kidneys.
Liver.
Colon (fecal matter expulsion).
Integumentary system overview:
Primary organ: skin (largest organ).
Additional components: glands, hair, nails.
Integumentary system includes glands and accessory structures, not just the skin surface.
Organ systems, microbiome, and vitamin K again
Microbiome:
Average human hosts 3–5 pounds of bacteria.
These bacteria contribute to nutrient production, vitamin synthesis (K), and other metabolic processes.
They help defend against pathogens.
Vitamin K sources and function recap:
Major clotting factor cofactor; essential for gamma-carboxylation of certain clotting factors.
Stored primarily in the liver; produced in part by gut bacteria.
Cirrhosis can impair vitamin K storage and clotting function, increasing bleeding risk.
Calcium sources and bone biology (to be expanded): Hints at calcium, marrow, and bone health as a broader topic for exams.
Skeletal biology and marrow terminology
Two types of bone marrow cavities:
Red marrow (active, hematopoietic; RBC production).
Yellow marrow (inactive, adipose tissue).
Hormone link to marrow: Kidney-derived erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates RBC production in red marrow.
Overall theme: Connects endocrine signals to hematopoiesis and oxygen delivery.
Reproductive biology hints (brief note in lecture)
Two-letter hints about egg and sperm terminology:
Prefixes with double o (oo-) imply eggs.
Male reproductive terminology was briefly touched as a light aside.
The lecturer used a casual approach to keep students engaged; formal content on reproduction is not the focus of this lecture.
Excretion and language of physiology: key phrases
Living things respond to stimuli: Physiology studies the mechanisms by which stimuli cause responses across systems.
Ion movement and protein conformation: Stimulus leads to ion flux, which leads to proteins changing configuration and function.
System-wide view: Physiology study places emphasis on the connectivity of organ systems (liver, kidney, neuro, cardiovascular, etc.).
Hemodynamics and exercise physiology (early concepts introduced)
Hemodynamics basics (from subsequent lectures):
Blood flow distribution depends on usage and tissue needs (CO, SV, HR relationships to perfusion).
Autonomic nervous system branches:
Sympathetic (fight or flight): increases cardiac output and redistributes blood flow away from GI tract toward skeletal muscles and brain as needed.
Parasympathetic (rest and digest): dominates during relaxed states.
Exercise example:
Metabolic byproducts like CO_2 and lactic acid influence blood flow and pH.
These metabolites, in turn, feed back to respiratory centers in the brain via the medulla oblongata.
Medulla oblongata and vital centers (neuroanatomy primer)
Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem) contains centers controlling:
Respiration rate.
Heart rate.
Blood pressure.
Emphasis: Many physiological controls are centered in the brainstem, connecting respiratory control with cardiovascular control and autonomic regulation.
Pharmacology and the narcotics topic
Narcotics = opiates.
Mechanism: Act by hyperpolarizing neuronal membranes to dampen pain signals.
Risk: Opiates act on reward pathways, creating addiction risk; caution with prescription and patient safety.
Lecture emphasis: Responsible use and avoiding misuse; personal anecdotes highlight risks of addiction and the need for prescribing responsibly.
Gastrointestinal and excretory topics, pH and CO_2 relationship
CO_2 and pH relationship:
Higher CO_2 levels lead to a lower pH (more acidic).
Medulla senses CO_2 changes and adjusts respiration rate to maintain acid-base balance.
Exercise and CO_2 dynamics:
Exercise increases CO_2 production, lowers blood pH.
Stimulates increased respiration to restore homeostasis.
Summary list and exam-oriented takeaways
Two big lists to memorize for Exam One:
Tissues and tissue types:
Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.
Excitable vs. non-excitable characteristics.
Excretory organs:
Skin, kidneys, liver, colon.
Secretion vs. excretion terminology.
Core physiological concepts to remember:
Four major hypoglycemia-elevating hormones:
Cortisol.
Epinephrine (adrenaline).
Glucagon.
Growth hormone.
EPO from kidney stimulates RBC production.
Cardiac output relation: CO = SV \times HR.
Athletes often have low resting heart rate with high stroke volume.
Brain energy demand: brain consumes ~20\% \text{ to } 30\% of total oxygen and glucose.
Glycolysis yields net 2 ATP per glucose (gross 4; minus 2 used in early steps).
Capillary beds:
One endothelial layer.
Site of exchange.
Leaky by design.
Lymphatics drain excess fluid into the thoracic duct.
Endocrinology terminology:
Endo- (in).
Secrete (krinos/Greek).
Ology (study of).
Vitamin K:
Clotting cofactor.
Liver stores it.
Gut microbiota contribute.
Cirrhosis impairs clotting.
Kidney-liver axis:
Liver produces many clotting factors.
Kidney signals via EPO.
Vitamin K interplay with liver health.
Integumentary system:
Skin plus glands, hair, nails.
Four components.
The skin is the largest organ.
Neuroanatomy basics:
CNS vs. PNS.
31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 cranial nerves.
Phrenic and sciatic nerves referenced for future study.
Edema and pathology:
Capillary leak leads to edema.
Lymphatics are the drainage system.
Bacterial contribution to health (microbiome):
3–5 pounds of bacteria.
Vitamin production and defensive roles.
Antibiotics and dysbiosis implications later.
Connecting to exam preparation and future topics
Expect questions about smallest-to-largest organizational hierarchical levels (chemical level to cells to tissues to organs to organ systems).
Expect roman numeral-type questions about imaging (ultrasound) and interpreting diagnostic sequences; not all options on a slide are necessarily correct.
Be prepared to discuss the interplay of physiology in disease:
Thrombosis, ischemia, myocardial infarction, stroke.
Pathophysiology of metabolic and cardiovascular complications.
Expect to relate the topics to real-world relevance:
Early detection as key (e.g., the CT scan story and CAC score).
Importance of lifestyle factors (sleep, diet, exercise) on physiology and disease risk.
Ethical and practical implications:
Use of narcotics.
Public health considerations.
Impact of stress on immune function and disease susceptibility.
Quick recap of important acronyms and terms to memorize
CO = SV \times HR (Cardiac output).
CAC\text{ score} (Coronary Artery Calcium score).
\text{RMP} (Resting membrane potential), \text{AP} (Action potential).
\text{EPO} (Erythropoietin).
\text{APO/AR opioid narcotics terminology} (narcotics = opiates).
\text{os is/ ot ic} (suffix indicating disease state or condition; osis or otic = condition of).
\text{-ogen} suffix indicating inactive precursor molecules (e.g., fibrinogen as a clotting precursor).
\text{endo-} and \text{-crine} (secretions into blood; endocrine system).
\text{hypo-} (under/below) as a common prefix to structures like hypothalamus.
\text{gly-} = sugar; \text{glycolysis} = sugar breakdown.
\text{hem/o/ hemo-} = blood; \text{angi-} = vessel; \text{angio-} vessel-related terms.
\text{capillary bed} = single endothelial layer; site of gas/nutrient exchange; leaky by design.
This lecture review emphasizes key concepts in physiology, starting with the importance of Greek and Latin roots for understanding medical terminology. Examples include cyt/cyte (cell), patho- (disease), and -ology (study of). The term extracorporeal highlights the practical application of roots in clinical settings.
Two foundational principles of physiology are discussed:
System Interconnectivity: Physiological systems, like the liver and kidneys, are always connected and must be studied in their systemic context.
Disease as a Learning Tool: Understanding normal function is enhanced by studying what happens when systems fail, including disease states, medical conditions, and death.
Clinical examples are integrated throughout, such as kidney stone pathophysiology (leading to pain due to non-compliant renal capsules and backflow), and the mnemonic use of RN for Roman numerals in exam questions, particularly relevant for ultrasound review items (uterus, gallbladder, blood flow, needle guidance, breast lump, thyroid, prostate).
The lecture covers several organ systems and their interactions:
Skeletal Muscle: Mostly voluntary, with exceptions like reflexes and shivering.
Clotting and Liver Function: The liver produces most clotting factors, and vitamin K (produced by gut bacteria, stored in the liver) is a crucial cofactor. Cirrhosis impairs vitamin K storage and clotting ability.
Hematopoiesis: Red marrow produces red blood cells, stimulated by Erythropoietin (EPO) from the kidneys. Yellow marrow stores fat. The Lance Armstrong case illustrates EPO's role in blood doping.
Endocrinology: The study of hormones, defined by
endo-(within) and-crine(secrete). Four key hormones elevate blood glucose during hypoglycemia: cortisol, epinephrine (adrenaline), glucagon, and growth hormone. Hormones generally have stronger systemic effects than neurotransmitters.Metabolism: Glycolysis breaks one glucose into two pyruvate molecules, yielding a net of 2 ATP. The brain demands 20-30\% of total body oxygen and glucose, and red blood cells rely solely on glycolysis for ATP due to lacking mitochondria.
Circulation and Lymphatics: Capillary beds, made of a single endothelial layer, are the primary sites of exchange and are inherently leaky. Edema results from fluid accumulation, and the lymphatic system drains this interstitial fluid via the thoracic duct into the venous system.
Excretion: Defined as the removal of waste, with main excretory organs being skin, kidneys, liver, and colon.
Secretionis distinct, referring to substance release into the body.Microbiome: The gut microbiome (3-5 pounds of bacteria) contributes to nutrient production, vitamin K synthesis, and pathogen defense.
Neurophysiology: Covers four tissue types (epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous), with muscle and nervous tissues being excitable. Key terms include RMP (resting membrane potential) and AP (action potential). The CNS (brain and spinal cord) and PNS (31 spinal, 12 cranial nerves) are introduced. The medulla oblongata controls vital functions like respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure.
Exam preparation emphasizes memorizing lists like the four tissue types (and their excitability) and the four excretory organs, along with core physiological concepts like CO = SV \times HR, brain energy needs, glycolysis ATP yield, capillary characteristics, and the role of Vitamin K. The lecture also touches on pharmacology (narcotics acting as opiates and addiction risks) and the CO_2/pH relationship, especially in exercise.
Overall, the lecture stresses connectivity across systems, the importance of anatomical and etymological knowledge, and relating concepts to clinical applications and real-world relevance, including ethical considerations.