Unit 1 Ecosystems

Species Interactions

Symbiosis

Mutualism: When both organisms benefit from an interaction (+,+)

Commensalism: One organism benefits and the other is unaffected (+,0)

Parasitism: One organism is hurt and the other benefits (+,-)

Predation: One organism benefits and the other is killed or gravely harmed (+,-)

Competition

Intraspecific: Between members of the same species

Interspecific: Between members of other species

Resource Portioning: Species share limited resources by utilizing different resources or occupying distinct niches in an ecosystem.

Terrestrial Biomes

Geographic and geologic influences

• Latitude

• Latitude

• Rainshadow

• Oceans

Land Biomes

Deserts

With an average high of 20 degrees Celsius and a low of 0, the desert is usually hot and dry.

Deserts also have an average of 0 mm of precipitation every year.

Threats: Climate change and water depletion

Tundra

Tundras have a high of 5 degrees Celsius and a low of -15 degrees. This makes the biome cold, and treeless, and has an abundance of permafrost.

Threats: melting permafrost from climate change and mining

Grasslands

Temperate Grassland

Known as the “Cold desert”, the temperate grassland often has harsh cold winters and hot dry summers which result in fires.

Threats: Agriculture

Savannas

Often, they have warm temperatures with wet and dry seasons.

Threats: Agriculture

Coniferous (Boreal, Taiga)

Cold winters, short growing seasons, and poor soil are all traits of coniferous forests.
Threats: Logging (cutting down trees)

Temperate Deciduous

They tend to have warm summers and cold winters.

Threats: Agriculture

Tropical Rain Forest

Tropical rainforests tend to have poor soil

Threats: Slash and burn, agriculture

(i can’t think of anything else to write)

Aquatic Biomes

Oceans and Estuaries

Aquatic biomes together make up 75% of the earth’s surface. Only about 3% of the earth’s water is drinkable.

Open ocean: No sunlight reaches the bottom

Photic zone: the top layer, nearest the surface of the ocean and is also called the sunlight layer

Aphotic zone: The portion of a lake or ocean where there is little or no sunlight.

Estuary: Partially enclosed coastal body of water where freshwater from rivers and streams mixes with saltwater from the ocean.

Freshwater

Rivers and Streams

Turbulent water moves dissolved oxygen. Animals need this

The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is the exchange of carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, and living organisms. Key points include:

1. Plants absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) during photosynthesis.

2. Animals consume plants, transferring carbon compounds.

3. Respiration releases carbon back into the atmosphere.

4. Decomposition of dead organisms also releases carbon.

5. Some carbon is stored in fossil fuels and carbonate rocks.

6. Human activities, like burning fossil fuels, increase CO2 levels, causing climate change.

The carbon cycle balances carbon in Earth's systems, but human actions disrupt this balance.

Short Cycle - Fast Carbon

Carbon that moves through animals and plants through photosynthesis and cellular respiration

Long Cycle - Slow Carbon

Carbon that has been stored underground for millions of years

Sinks/Reservoirs

1. Deep ocean sediments (sedimentary rock)

2. Ocean

Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen Fixation

N2 → NH3

Nitrification

NH3 → NO2 → NO3

Ammonification

NH3 → NH4

Denitrification

NO2

or → N2

NO3

Human Impact

Excess nitrogen can build up in waterways which happens to be a type of pollution. This type of pollution occurs when the burning of fossil fuels releases NOx (Nitrogen oxide, air pollutant)

Phosphorus Cycle

The phosphorus cycle describes how phosphorus moves through ecosystems. Rocks weather, releasing phosphorus into the soil. Plants absorb it from the soil, animals get it from plants. When plants and animals die, phosphorus goes back to the soil. Erosion can wash phosphorus into water, where aquatic plants and animals can take it up. Eventually, it can become sedimentary rocks, completing the cycle.

Hydrologic Cycle

The water cycle, or hydrological cycle, is the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the Earth's surface. It involves evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff.

1. Evaporation: Heat from the sun turns water into vapor, which rises into the atmosphere.

2. Condensation: The water vapor cools and forms clouds.

3. Precipitation: Water droplets in clouds fall as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.

4. Runoff: Water on land flows into rivers, lakes, and oceans, restarting the cycle.

This process ensures the availability of freshwater for ecosystems and human needs.

Primary Productivity

6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 (glucose)

Biomes

More plants = More productivity

More sunlight = Higher productivity

Oceans

Red and blue wavelengths do not go into deep oceans which means there’s no photosynthesis occurring

Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Trophic Levels

Food Web

The 10% Rule

90% of energy is lost as heat and respiration

general vocab

Decomposers: Breaks down organic material

Detrivore: Eats dead material

Scavenger: Eats everything

Biomass: The mass of living biological organisms in a given area or ecosystem at a given time

Niche: An organism’s job in an environment

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Unit 2 Biodiversity

Types of Biodiversity

• Genetic

• Species

• Habitat

The higher the diversity the better

→ More resistant because there’s a lot of different genes

Species Richness v. Species Evenness

Species richness - the number of species in an area

Species evenness - the abundance of each species in an area

Invasive Species & Biodiversity

Invasive species can lower diversity by out-competing native species

Ecosystem Services

Regulating

• Natural Phenomenon

• Climate Control

• Pollination

• Preventing Erosion

• Purifying Water

Cultural

(Interacting with Nature)

• Recreational

• Aesthetics

• Spiritual aspects

• Educational

Extraction from Nature (Provisioning)

• Food

• Water

• Oxygen

• Minerals

• Fuel

• Medicine

Supporting

Fundamentals

• Photosynthesis

• Habitats

• Nutrient Cycling

• Soil Formation

Island Biogeography Theory

Island biogeography theory explains how species richness on an island is influenced by island size and distance from the mainland. It predicts that larger islands and islands closer to the mainland will have higher species diversity due to factors like colonization and extinction rates.

Habitat Fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation is the process where large continuous habitats are divided into smaller, isolated patches, leading to disruption of ecosystems and impacting biodiversity.

What are ways habitat is fragmented on the mainland?

• Roads and buildings

Why does biodiversity decrease?

• Species cannot move between habitats

What are edge effects?

• Species are more susceptible to illness on the edge of habitats

How do we mitigate?

• Create wildlife preserves: Habitat corridor

Ecological Tolerance

A range of conditions an organism can tolerate

• Not all species are affected in the same way by environmental changes

Species with a broad range of tolerance tend to survive longer than species with narrow ranges of tolerance.

Ecological Succession

Primary Succession

The process of ecological succession that occurs in an area where no soil is present, such as on bare rock or sand. It begins with pioneer species like lichens and mosses that gradually break down the substrate and create soil for other plants to grow. Over time, more complex plant and animal communities are established, leading to a stable ecosystem.

Secondary Succession

The process where an ecosystem recovers after a disturbance that leaves soil intact. It involves the reestablishment of a community in an area that was previously inhabited. Pioneer species colonize the area first, followed by more complex species, leading to a stable ecosystem.

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Unit 3 Populations

Reproductive Strategies

Survivorship Curves

A graph that shows the percent of survival rate for different age groups in a population over their lifespan

Carrying Capacity

The maximum population an area can sustain (Kr)

1. Lots of population growth in the beginning because resources were abundant

2. Overshoot - When a population exceeds carrying capacity (goes over the dotted line) \

3. Dieback (?) - Increased mortality due to lack of resources

4. Population stabilizes right around carrying capacity

Age Structure Diagrams (Population Pyramid)

Shows the distribution of ages in a population and predicts future populations

TFR (Total Fertility Rate)

• Varies among countries

• The average number of children a woman has

• Affected by age, when women have their first child

• Educational opportunity

Replacement Fertility

The total fertility rate needed to keep a population stable

• Global average - 2.1

• Higher in some countries

  → Infant mortality rate

Greying Populations

• fewer young workers to support the elderly population

• More healthcare costs

• Found more in declining populations

The Demographic Transition

Factors that made it shoot up after 1850

• Advancements in medicine

• The industrial revolutions

Human Population Dynamics

(not a large sub-unit)

Global population - 8 BIllion

Fasted Growing Areas - Asian and Africa

Growth Rate - 1.1% (globally) per year

5 Most populous Areas

• China

• India

• United States

• Indonesia

• Pakistan

Factors that Affect Growth Rate

• Total fertility

• Life expectancy

• Age structure

• Migration

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Unit 4 Earth Systems and Resources

Plate Boundaries

Convergent plates are tectonic plates that move towards each other. When they collide, they can create mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes.

• Subduction: the sideways and downward movement of the edge of a plate of the earth's crust into the mantle

Divergent plates move apart due to magma upwelling, creating a rift. Molten rock fills the gap, solidifies, and forms new crust. This seafloor spreading process forms mid-ocean ridges and new oceanic crust.

• Rifts

• Middle Ocean Ridges

• Created by seafloor spreading

  • → Magma moving through the boundary forming new crust

  • This crust is formed by the magma rising up through the crack the plates leave, think of a pimple

Transform plates, or transform boundaries, are where tectonic plates slide horizontally past each other. These boundaries cause earthquakes. (Side note, they cause earthquakes mainly due to the bits of rock/earth snagging onto each other as they pass)Earthquakes

• Earthquakes can cause tsunamis when they occur under the ocean floor, displacing large amounts of water and creating powerful waves that can travel across the ocean.

• One example, Fukushima Japan

  • Caused a nuclear power plant to malfunction, releasing radiation

Volcanos and Mountains

Convergent Belts (Volcanos)

• Ring of Fire

• Mediterranian Belt

(the quality of that picture is horrible jesus christ)

Formation and Erosion

Parent material in soil refers to the underlying material from which soil forms. It can be rocks, minerals, organic matter, or sediments.

Formation Affected by:

• Parent material (Rock)

• Over time, deeper layers form

• Climate (Warm, wet climate is best)

• Topography (The shape of land) (Slope can affect)

• Organisms (Burrow animals)

Horizons

O Horizon

• Contains mostly organic things

• Usually the smallest layer

• Carbon to Carbon bonds (leaves)

A Horizon

• Surface soil (topsoil/humus)

• Most moist, usually dark brown in color

• Where most plant roots are located

E Horizon

• Leaching layer, removing minerals and nutrients

• It is typically lighter in color and has a higher concentration of sand and silt particles compared to the layers above and below it.

B Horizon

• Characterized by the accumulation of everything

• Collects minerals and nutrients. It looks and feels different from the A horizon. It helps with water, nutrients, and root movement in the soil.

C Horizon

• The C horizon in soil is the deepest layer of soil, also known as the parent material. It consists of partially weathered or unweathered rock and has little to no organic matter. Its main function is to provide a source of minerals for the upper soil layers.

R Horizon

• The R horizon in soil refers to the bedrock layer, which is the deepest layer of soil. It consists of unweathered parent material and is typically found beneath the other soil horizons.

Soil

Made out of

45% Soil particles, specifically sand, silt, and clay

25% Air

5% Organic matter

Causes of Erosion

Natural: Water, wind, and gravity can cause erosion

Anthropogenic: Human-caused erosion

• Deforestation

  • (through the roots as they hold soil in place)

• Agriculture

  • (Tilling, messing up the soil by disrupting soil structure)

• Pesticides and Fertilizer

  • (Changes the chemistry of the soil)

• Overgrazing

  • (Short grass = short roots)

Composition and Properties

What is it?

A renewable resource that can be replenished but can also be depleted (this is a cycle)

Porosity

The space between particles

• Sand has a high porosity

• Silt has a medium porosity

• Clay has a low porosity

Permeability

Porosity affects permeability
Permeability is the ability for water to move through different materials

• Clay has a low permeability

• Silt has a medium permeability

• Sand has a high permeability

This is because each of these materials is compacted in different intensities

Water Holding Capacity

Permeability affects water-holding capacity

How well soil can hold water

• Clay has a high water-holding capacity

• Silt has a medium holding capacity

• Sand has a medium holding capacity

The water-holding capacity of different materials varies based on their physical and chemical properties, such as porosity, surface area, and chemical composition. Materials with high porosity and larger surface area, like soil, can hold more water compared to materials with low porosity and smaller surface area, such as rocks or metals.

Chemical Properties

Plants need nutrients to grow

These nutrients are found in soil

• Nitrogen (N)

• Phosphorus (P)

• Potassium (K)

• pH

These factors can affect the growth of plants. Adjusting these elements to what fits best will lead to better plant growth.

Biological Properties

Organisms put nutrients in the soil due to decomposition

Soil Texture Triangle

Layers of the Atmosphere

Atmosphere Composition

The Earth's atmosphere is primarily composed of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and traces of other gases such as argon, carbon dioxide, and water vapor.

Layers

Troposphere

• The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, extending up to about 10-15 kilometers (6-9 miles) in altitude. It is where weather occurs and contains most of Earth's air mass. The troposphere has a decreasing temperature with increasing altitude. The troposphere is important for regulating Earth's climate and supporting life.

Stratosphere

• The stratosphere is the second layer of Earth's atmosphere, situated between the troposphere and mesosphere. It spans from 10 to 50 kilometers above the surface and houses the ozone layer. The stratosphere's temperature rises as altitude increases due to ozone absorption of UV radiation. Commercial airliners prefer the lower stratosphere for its stability and reduced turbulence.

Mesosphere

• The mesosphere is the third layer of the Earth's atmosphere, found between the stratosphere and thermosphere. It spans 50 to 85 kilometers (31 to 53 miles) above the surface. Temperatures decrease as altitude increases, reaching a low of -90 degrees Celsius (-130 degrees Fahrenheit). Mesospheric clouds, or noctilucent clouds, are present here, and meteors burn up upon entry.

Thermosphere

• The thermosphere is a layer above the mesosphere and below the exosphere in the Earth's atmosphere. It spans from 80 to 600 kilometers above the surface. Temperatures can reach 2,500 degrees Celsius due to solar radiation absorption, but it feels cold due to low particle density. The International Space Station orbits in this layer.

Exosphere

• The exosphere is Earth's outermost atmospheric layer, extending from 500 kilometers above the surface to space. It consists of low-density gases like hydrogen and helium, with traces of other gases. Unlike other layers, it has no clear boundary and thins out with increasing altitude. Its low density makes gas retention difficult. It is crucial for satellite and spacecraft operations and contributes to the creation of auroras and airglow through interactions with charged particles from the Sun.

Global Wind Patterns

• Warm air rises near the equator, forming low-pressure zones

  • This leads to abundant rainfall in tropical regions

• The cooled air then moves towards the poles, creating subtropical jet streams

• It falls in the subtropics (the 30-degree line both in the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere) creating high-pressure zones and dry conditions

• This influences weather patterns, trade winds, and global precipitation distribution

Seasons

• The rotation of the earth affects the seasons through the tilt of its axis

• Different parts of the planet receive varying amounts of sunlight throughout the year

• during the summer, the hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, experiencing longer days with more direct sunlight

• In contrast, during winter, the hemisphere tilted away from the sun receives less sunlight and shorter days, leading to cooler temperatures.

• The equinoxes, occurring in spring and autumn, mark the times when the tilt of the Earth's axis is neither towards nor away from the Sun, resulting in more equal day and night lengths

Earth's Geography and Climate

• The shape and elevation of the Earth's land can block the movement of air masses

• This causes differences in temperature and precipitation on either side of the mountain range

• The Rain shadow effect results in one side of a mountain receiving more precipitation than the other side

• On the windward side, warm, moist air rises up the mountain, cools, and falls as precipitation

• The leeward side doesn't receive much precipitation because the air doesn't have much moisture left

El Nino and La Nina

El Nino

• During El Nino, trade winds weaken, reducing cold weather upwelling along the western coast of South America.

• This affects weather patterns, causing changes in rainfall, temperature, and storm activity worldwide

• El Nino results in droughts in Southeast Asia and disrupts fisheries, agriculture, and water resources

  • This leads to economic and social consequences

Normal Weather Pattern

• Takes place in the Tropical Pacific

• Equatorial water flows from west to east

• Cold, nutrient-rich water flows from the East Pacific to the West

La Nina

• Strengthens normal conditions

• Can Intensify hurricane conditions (Formation in Atlantic Ocean)

Effects of El Nino

• Suppressed upwelling and less productive fisheries in South America

• Warmer winter in much of North America

• Increased precipitation nd flooding in America (west coast specifically)

• Drought in South east Asian and austrialia (colder)

• Decreased hurricane activity in the Atlantic Ocean

• Weakened monsoon activity in India and southeast Asia

Effects of La Nina

• Stronger upwelling and better fisheries in South America than normal

• Worse tornado activity in US and Hurricane in the Atlantic

• Cooler, drier weather in the Americas

• Rainier, warmer, increased monsoons in South East Asia

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Unit 5 Land and Water Usage

Sustainable Forestry

Timber Market Value - Economic value.

• Lumber - which is when timber is shaped can be used for paper, houses, and energy

Ecological Value

• Trees provide habitat, which helps moderate the local climate

• Prevents soil erosion

• Helps with soil formation

• Helps reduce runoff

• Helps store carbon

What is sustainability?
Sustainable forestry is using sustainable methods to log trees

• Reusing wood

Clearcutting - Cutting down trees all at the same time which leads to even-aged stands

Even-aged - These grow all at the same size

Uneven-aged stems: Trees grow at different sizes

The Green Revolution

Industrial agriculture - Mechanization and standardization applied to food reproduction

GMOS

Genetically Modified Organisms

Irrigation

Waterlogging - Roots that cannot get enough oxygen due to water

Salinization - Too much salt left behind through evaporation or saltwater intrusion which is toxic for plant growth

Ogallala Aquifer - A water table aquifer surrounded by sand, silt, clay, and gravel. Located beneath the great plains as one of the world’s largest aquifers.

Pest Control

Pesticides are substances used to control or eliminate pests, such as insects, weeds, and fungi, to protect crops and prevent plant damage.

Pros: Increases crop yield s while decreasing damage from pests

Cons: Human health risk, bioaccumulation, biomagnification, and can kill non-target organisms

Biocontrol

Biocontrol refers to using living organisms or their products to control pests or diseases in agriculture and forestry, reducing the reliance on chemical pesticides.

Pros: No chemicals
Cons: Species can become invasive

IPM

The goal of IPM is to use a variety of methods to control the number of pests (not trying to fully eradicate) and minimize the environmental impact

Sustainable Soil

Uses

• Organic fertilizer needs to be gathered (synthetic)

• Nutrient levels unknown

• Harder to use, synthetic is easier

Meat Production

Free Range

• Can overgraze which causes desertification

• Waste can be spread over large areas

• Benefit: Animals have access to the outdoors

CAFOs

• Concentrated animal feeding operations

• Increased antibiotic use

• ethical concerns

• waste issues

• Benefit: Effective method of producing meat because it is cost-efficient

Why eat less meat?

Leads to a decrease in greenhouse gases (methane), a decrease in land and water use, and a decrease in antibiotic use.

Aquaculture

• Cost-effective

• Less fuel used

Cons:

• Genetically modified fish can mate with native fish

• Waste issues

Over Fishing

How can we turn this around?

• Catch limit

• Treaties - CITES

• Laws - Endangered species act

So many fish are being taken away, what will be the consequences?

• Loss of biodiversity

Minerals

Mining

• Surface mining

  • Strip, open pit, or mountaintop

• Substance mining tunnels under the ground

What do we mine for?

• Coal, gravel, sand, diamonds

• They are harvested as ore and then refined

Mining

→Refinement

→Transportation

→Use

→Desposal

Impacts

1. Soil erosion

   • Dust pollution

   • Fossil fuel use

   • Water pollution

   • Mercury can be used to separate gold from ore which leads to mercury pollution as well

   • Cyanide is often used

   • Acid mine drainage

   • Tailings can contain sulfur that can form sulfuric acid

Remediation

• Turn mine into a recreational area

• Replant vegetation to combat acid mine drainage

The Impacts of Urbanization

Heat and Island Effect

Average temperatures are several degrees warmer in cities than in suburbs and other areas

Solutions

• Paint rooftops a lighter color

• Plant rooftop vegetation

Reduce Impacts

• Mass transit

• Permeable surfaces (pavements and more parks)

• Walkable cities

Impact on Water Cycle

• More runoff and less infiltration in cities from impervious surfaces

• Change that into more permeable surfaces through rooftop gardens and permeable pavement

Overgrazing refers to the excessive grazing of livestock on a particular area of land, resulting in the depletion of vegetation and degradation of the ecosystem. It occurs when the number of grazing animals exceeds the carrying capacity of the land, leading to negative environmental impacts.

Overgrazing can happen due to various reasons, including:

1. Overstocking: When there are too many animals for the available grazing resources.

2. Lack of rotational grazing: Failing to rotate livestock to different pastures, which allows vegetation to recover.

3. Limited grazing management: Insufficient monitoring and control of grazing practices.

To reduce the risk of overgrazing, the following steps can be taken:

1. Implementing rotational grazing: Dividing pastures into smaller sections and rotating livestock between them to allow vegetation recovery.

2. Proper stocking rates: Ensuring the number of animals is in balance with the carrying capacity of the land.

3. Resting pastures: Allowing pastures to rest and recover by temporarily excluding livestock.

4. Improving water sources: Providing alternative water sources to prevent over-concentration of animals in specific areas.

Overgrazing is related to the tragedy of the commons concept, which describes the depletion of shared resources due to individual self-interest. In the case of overgrazing, individual livestock owners may prioritize their own animals' needs without considering the long-term sustainability of the shared grazing land, leading to its degradation.

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Unit 6 Energy Resources and Consumption

Energy Resources

Non-Renewable

Finite amount of a material

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is the energy released from the splitting or combining of atomic nuclei, typically through nuclear reactions, which can be harnessed to generate electricity.

Coal

Coal energy is produced by burning ancient plant remains called coal. It releases heat energy for electricity and heat production. However, coal has environmental drawbacks. It emits carbon dioxide, contributing to climate change, and pollutants like sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter, causing air pollution and respiratory issues.

Oil

Oil energy is versatile, serving various purposes like transportation, electricity generation, and heating. It is refined into fuels for vehicles and burned in power plants to produce electricity. Additionally, oil is used for heating and plays a crucial role in producing plastics, lubricants, and chemicals. Overall, oil energy is vital for powering our modern society.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is used for energy by being burned to produce heat, which is then used to generate electricity or provide heat for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes.

Renewable

Biomass

Biomass is organic matter, like plants and wood, used for renewable energy. It can become biofuels or be burned for heat/electricity. It's renewable because it comes from living organisms. It's a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, reducing emissions. Environmental benefits depend on factors like source, production, and land use.

Hydropower

Hydropower uses flowing or falling water to generate electricity. It is renewable because it relies on the continuously replenished water cycle. Water is collected in reservoirs and released through turbines, which spin generators to produce electricity. Unlike fossil fuels, hydropower is sustainable, and clean, and does not deplete natural resources or produce greenhouse gas emissions. It can help reduce carbon emissions and combat climate change.

Solar

Solar energy converts sunlight into electricity through photovoltaic cells. It is a renewable resource with advantages like low maintenance and cost-effectiveness. In the US, the Department of Energy promotes solar energy development and adoption to transition to cleaner and sustainable energy.

Geothermal

Geothermal energy is heat derived from the Earth's internal heat. It is a renewable energy resource because it is continuously replenished by the natural heat of the Earth. This energy can be harnessed by drilling wells to access hot water or steam, which can then be used to generate electricity or for direct heating purposes. Geothermal energy is considered renewable because the heat within the Earth is virtually limitless and will continue to be produced as long as the Earth exists.

Fracking

Fracking, short for hydraulic fracturing, is a method used to extract natural gas and oil from deep underground. It involves injecting a mixture of water, sand, and chemicals at high pressure into rock formations to release the trapped gas or oil. Fracking has both environmental benefits and concerns.

On one hand, it has contributed to increased energy production and reduced reliance on foreign oil. On the other hand, it poses potential risks to the environment. These risks include water contamination, air pollution, habitat disruption, and induced seismic activity. The long-term effects of fracking on ecosystems and human health are still being studied.

Coal Powerplant

A coal power plant generates electricity by burning coal to produce steam, which drives a turbine connected to a generator.

1. Coal is mined from underground or surface mines and transported to the power plant.

2. The coal is pulverized into a fine powder to increase its surface area, allowing for efficient combustion.

3. The pulverized coal is then blown into the combustion chamber of a boiler.

4. In the boiler, the coal is burned at high temperatures, releasing heat energy.

5. The heat energy converts water into steam in the boiler tubes.

6. The high-pressure steam is directed towards the turbine blades, causing them to spin.

7. As the turbine blades rotate, they turn a shaft connected to a generator, producing electricity.

8. After passing through the turbine, the steam is condensed back into water in a condenser.

9. The condensed water is then returned to the boiler to be heated and converted into steam again.

10. The generated electricity is sent to the power grid for distribution to homes, businesses, and industries.

Nuclear Powerplant

The process of a nuclear power plant can be summarized in the following steps:

1. Nuclear Fuel: Uranium or plutonium fuel is used in the reactor core. These fuel rods undergo a process called fission, where the atoms split and release energy.

2. Nuclear Reaction: The fission process generates heat and produces high-energy neutrons. These neutrons collide with other uranium atoms, causing a chain reaction.

3. Heat Generation: The heat produced from the nuclear reaction is used to convert water into steam. This is done in the reactor's primary cooling system.

4. Steam Turbine: The high-pressure steam drives a turbine, which is connected to a generator. As the turbine spins, it generates electricity.

5. Cooling System: After passing through the turbine, the steam is condensed back into water using a cooling system. This water is then recycled back into the primary cooling system.

6. Electricity Distribution: The electricity generated by the generator is sent to a transformer, which increases the voltage for efficient transmission. It is then distributed through power lines to homes, businesses, and industries.

Hydroelectric Dam Powerplant

A hydroelectric dam power plant operates in the following steps:

1. Water Intake: Water is collected from a river or reservoir and directed towards the dam.

2. Dam: The dam is a large structure built across a river to create a reservoir. It stores a large amount of water at a higher elevation.

3. Penstock: The water flows through a penstock, which is a large pipe or tunnel, from the reservoir to the turbine.

4. Turbine: The high-pressure water from the penstock strikes the blades of a turbine, causing it to spin.

5. Generator: The spinning turbine is connected to a generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

6. Transmission: The electricity generated is transmitted through power lines to homes, businesses, and industries.

7. Release of Water: After passing through the turbine, the water is released downstream, maintaining the natural flow of the river.

8. Control Systems: Various control systems monitor and regulate the flow of water, turbine speed, and electricity output for efficient operation.

Run-Off River Hydroelectric Powerplant

A run-of-river hydroelectric power plant is a type of hydroelectric power plant that harnesses the energy of flowing water in a river without the need for a large reservoir. Here are the steps involved in the operation of a run-of-river hydroelectric power plant:

1. Diversion: A portion of the river's flow is diverted using a weir or dam, creating a channel or canal that directs the water towards the power plant.

2. Intake: The diverted water is then channeled into an intake structure, which may include screens to prevent debris from entering the system.

3. Penstock: The water is then conveyed through a penstock, a large pipe or conduit, which carries the water from the intake to the turbine.

4. Turbine: The water flows through the penstock and strikes the blades of a turbine, causing it to rotate. The turbine converts the kinetic energy of the flowing water into mechanical energy.

5. Generator: The rotating turbine is connected to a generator, which converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The generator consists of coils of wire that rotate within a magnetic field, producing an electric current.

6. Transmission: The generated electricity is then transmitted through power lines to the electrical grid or to nearby consumers.

7. Return to the river: After passing through the turbine, the water is returned to the river downstream of the power plant, maintaining the natural flow of the river.

Tidal Energy Powerplant

The operation of a tidal energy power plant can be explained in the following steps:

1. Tidal Variation: The power plant is located in an area with significant tidal variations, such as a bay or estuary, where the rise and fall of tides are substantial.

2. Barrage Construction: A barrage, which is a dam-like structure, is built across the tidal inlet. It consists of sluice gates or turbines that can capture and control the flow of water.

3. Tidal Flow: As the tide rises, water flows into the tidal basin through the barrage openings. During high tide, the sluice gates or turbines remain closed.

4. Ebb Tide: As the tide begins to recede, the sluice gates or turbines are opened, allowing the water to flow out of the tidal basin. This creates a pressure difference between the basin and the sea.

5. Turbine Operation: The ebb tide causes the water to flow back through the turbines, which are connected to generators. The turbines spin, converting the kinetic energy of the flowing water into mechanical energy.

6. Electricity Generation: The mechanical energy is then converted into electrical energy by the generators. This electricity can be transmitted to the grid for distribution to consumers.

7. Tidal Reversal: As the tide changes and starts to rise again, the sluice gates or turbines are closed to prevent water from flowing back into the tidal basin.

8. Environmental Considerations: Tidal power plants must be designed and operated with consideration for the local ecosystem, including fish migration patterns and potential impacts on marine life.

Active Solar System

Active solar system energy refers to the utilization of solar energy through mechanical or electrical devices. Here are the steps involved in harnessing active solar system energy:

1. Collection: Solar panels or collectors are used to capture sunlight. These devices are typically made of photovoltaic cells or solar thermal collectors.

2. Conversion: In photovoltaic systems, sunlight is converted directly into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. Solar thermal systems convert sunlight into heat energy, which can be used for various purposes like heating water or generating steam.

3. Storage: Energy storage systems, such as batteries or thermal storage tanks, are used to store excess energy generated during periods of high solar availability. This stored energy can be used during times when sunlight is limited.

4. Distribution: The converted energy is distributed to the desired location or used locally. In the case of electricity, it can be fed into the grid or used to power electrical devices directly.

5. Monitoring and Control: Various sensors and control systems are employed to monitor the performance of the solar system, optimize energy production, and ensure safety.

Passive Solar Home Design

Passive solar home design is an architectural approach that utilizes the sun's energy to provide heating, cooling, and lighting for a building. It involves strategic placement of windows, insulation, and thermal mass to maximize the use of natural sunlight and minimize the need for mechanical systems. Key principles include orienting the building to capture the sun's rays, using shading devices to control solar gain, and incorporating thermal mass materials to store and release heat. This design approach reduces reliance on fossil fuels, decreases energy costs, and promotes sustainability.

Photovoltaic Panels (Solar Panels)

1. Solar panels, also known as photovoltaic (PV) panels, convert sunlight into electricity using the photovoltaic effect.

2. The process starts with the solar panels absorbing sunlight, which consists of photons.

3. The photons excite the electrons in the solar cells, causing them to move and create an electric current.

4. The direct current (DC) electricity generated by the solar panels is then converted into alternating current (AC) electricity using an inverter.

5. The AC electricity is then used to power electrical devices or can be fed into the electrical grid.

6. To install solar panels, they are typically mounted on rooftops or in open areas with maximum exposure to sunlight.

7. Proper wiring and electrical connections are made to ensure the generated electricity can be utilized effectively.

8. Regular maintenance, such as cleaning the panels and checking for any damage or malfunctions, is important to ensure optimal performance.

9. Solar panels are a renewable energy source, providing clean and sustainable electricity while reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

Wind Power

Wind power can be explained in the following steps:

1. Wind is a form of renewable energy that is harnessed by using wind turbines.

2. The first step is to identify a suitable location with consistent and strong wind patterns.

3. Wind turbines are then installed in these locations. These turbines consist of large blades that rotate when the wind blows.

4. As the blades rotate, they spin a generator, which converts the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy.

5. The electricity generated by the wind turbines is then transmitted through power lines to homes, businesses, and industries.

6. To ensure efficient operation, regular maintenance and monitoring of the wind turbines are necessary.

7. The electricity produced from wind power is a clean and sustainable source of energy, as it does not produce greenhouse gas emissions or contribute to air pollution.

Geothermal Powerplant

A geothermal power plant is a facility that harnesses the heat from the Earth's core to generate electricity. Here are the steps involved in the operation of a geothermal power plant:

1. Resource Identification: Identify areas with geothermal potential through geological surveys and exploration.

2. Well Drilling: Drill deep wells into the Earth's crust to access the geothermal reservoirs. These wells typically range from a few hundred to several thousand feet deep.

3. Reservoir Extraction: Hot water or steam is extracted from the geothermal reservoirs through production wells.

4. Power Generation: The extracted fluid is used to drive a turbine, which is connected to a generator. The turbine converts the kinetic energy of the fluid into mechanical energy, and the generator converts this mechanical energy into electricity.

5. Fluid Re-injection: After energy extraction, the cooled fluid is re-injected back into the geothermal reservoir through injection wells. This helps sustain the reservoir's pressure and ensures long-term resource availability.

6. Power Transmission: The generated electricity is transmitted through power lines to homes, businesses, and industries for consumption.

7. Environmental Considerations: Geothermal power plants have minimal greenhouse gas emissions and a small physical footprint. However, careful monitoring is necessary to prevent the release of potentially harmful gases and to manage the disposal of any byproducts.

Hydrogen Powered Car

A hydrogen-powered car, also known as a fuel cell vehicle (FCV), works by converting hydrogen gas into electricity through a process called electrolysis. Here's a simplified explanation of how it works:

1. Hydrogen gas (H2) is stored in high-pressure tanks in the car.

2. The hydrogen gas is then fed into a fuel cell stack, which contains multiple fuel cells.

3. Each fuel cell consists of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte membrane.

4. At the anode, hydrogen gas is split into protons (H+) and electrons (e-).

5. The protons pass through the electrolyte membrane, while the electrons are forced to travel through an external circuit, creating an electric current.

6. The electric current can be used to power the car's electric motor and other components.

7. At the cathode, oxygen from the air combines with the protons and electrons to form water (H2O), which is the only byproduct of this process.

8. The water vapor is released as the car's exhaust.

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Unit 7 Atmospheric Pollution

Air Pollution

Sources

Point air pollution: Where you can point to where the pollution is happening.

Nonpoint Air pollution: Larger area of pollution (cars in a city)

Natural: Pollen, volcanos, and dust storms

Anthropogenic: Combustion of fossil fuels

Primary Vs. Secondary

Pollutants

Reducing Air Pollution

1. Regulate air pollution: (Tax breaks), Policies (ideal free zones), and laws (Clean air act)

2. Conserve and reduce fossil fuel use

3. Alternative fuels: Wind and solar

Clean Air Act

Sets standards for the six criteria for air pollutants

• Limits emissions from industry and transportation

• Funds pollution research

Decreasing Vehicle Pollution

Vapor Recovery Nozzle

A tube inside gas nozzles that sends VOCS to an underground tank

Catalytic Converter

Required on all cars since 1975

Reduces harmful emissions by converting toxic gases like carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides into less harmful substances like carbon dioxide and nitrogen through chemical reactions with a catalyst.

Decreasing Industrial Pollution

Scrubber

A scrubber works by passing polluted air through a liquid or solid material to remove pollutants before releasing it into the atmosphere. The pollutants are absorbed or chemically reacted with the scrubbing material, reducing industrial pollution.

Electrostatic Precipitator

An electrostatic precipitator reduces industrial pollution by using electric charges to attract and capture particles like dust and smoke from the air. The charged particles are then collected on plates or filters, preventing them from being released into the atmosphere.

Photochemical Smog and Thermal Inversions

How is NOx created?

NOx is created through the combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants, and industrial processes. It forms when nitrogen and oxygen in the air react at high temperatures.

What have scientists found that people exposed to high levels of NOx may suffer from?

Lung disease, heart disease, asthma, plants can be affected

What is the equation for photochemical smog

Photochemical Smog: (NO + VOC + UV + O2 → O3 + PANS

NO + VOCs come from urban areas with many cars

NO is highest in the morning

O3 is highest in the afternoon

UV: Environment

O3 + PANS: Secondary

Temperature Inversion

• Normal Temperature Gradient: Temperature decreases with increasing altitude.

• Inversion: Temperature increases with increasing altitude, trapping pollutants.

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Unit 8 Aquatic and Terrestrial Pollution

Water Quality Indicators

Nitrate

• Nutrients for growth

• Too much can cause algae blooms = nutrient pollution

Phosphate

• Found in fertilizers

• Found in detergents

Fecal Coliform

Fecal matter in the water

• Can cause cholera and dysentery (sewage pollution)]

Turbidity

How clear the water is

The water can become cloudy from sediment pollution

• Decrease in photosynthesis

• Stoppage of water

pH

Ocean Acidification

→ Climate change

→ Can affect shells of organisms

Temperature

(Thermal pollution)

Range of Tolerance

Coral reefs get stressed with hot water

When exposed to hot water, coral reefs undergo coral bleaching, where they expel the algae living in their tissues, causing them to turn white and potentially die.

D.O

Dissolved Oxygen

Oxygen Sag Curve

Species Diversity

Higher species diversity is better

Biological Oxygen Demand

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological organisms to break down organic material in water over a specific time period. High BOD levels indicate high organic pollution, leading to oxygen depletion and harming aquatic life.

1. Excessive nutrients enter water.

2. Algal bloom occurs due to nutrient abundance.

3. Algae die, sink, and decompose.

4. Decomposition depletes oxygen.

5. Low oxygen levels harm aquatic life.

Water Pollution

Water Pollution Sources are Classified as:

• Point source pollution: enters from a single source

  • Example: CWA - need a permit

• Non-point source pollution: Not from a single source

  • Example: Runoff, sediment

Wastewater

Water from human use such as factories, sinks, etc

Artificial Eutrophication

Caused by excessive nutrient inputs from human activities like agricultural runoff or sewage discharge, leading to accelerated growth of algae and aquatic plant species.

Thermal Pollution

Warm water is bad for water pollution because it decreases oxygen solubility, leading to lower oxygen levels in water bodies. This can harm aquatic life and disrupt ecosystems.

Ocean Pollution

• Oil spills

• Plastic waste

Groundwater Pollution

Heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, and mercury harm humans

Effects of Water Pollution

• Water pollution can harm aquatic life, disrupt ecosystems, contaminate drinking water, and lead to human health issues. It can also impact industries like fishing and tourism.

• Water pollution can cause immediate damage to an ecosystem, but the effects can be long-term and far-reaching as well

• Biomagnification = build up through the food chain

  • Levels at the bottom of the food chain (in producers) may not be harmful

  • Levels at the top of the food chain can be toxic

• Endocrine disrupters (PCBs, PBBs, BPA) in plastics and solvents can disrupt hormone systems and also can be PDPs.

Eutrophication

Causes

Excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) from…

• Fertilizers

• Sewage

• Manure

Effects

• Decrease in dissolved oxygen in the H2O

• Decrease/death of aquatic organisms

• Reduced H2O clarity for photosynthesis by aquatic plants

• Algae toxins

How it works

1. Excessive nutrients enter water.

2. Nutrients promote algae growth.

3. Algae bloom blocks sunlight.

4. Plants die due to lack of sunlight.

5. Decomposition depletes oxygen.

6. Oxygen depletion harms aquatic life.

Sewer Treatment

Primary Treatment

Removal of sticks and rocks which are removed by screens. Chemicals can be added to make them clump

Secondary Treatment

Bacteria perform aerobic decomposition to break down organic matter

Tertiary Treatment

Disinfection through chlorine, UV, and ozone reduces final pollutants left after primary and secondary treatment.

Solid Waste

Categories

• Municipal (homes and businesses)

• Manufacturing

• Mining waste

• Agricultural waste

Disposal

1. Landfill

2. Incineration

   Burning trash for energy saves space but also produces air pollution

Solid Waste in Action

Solid Waste Management Terms:

• Groundwater Monitoring: Monitoring water quality to prevent contamination.

• Methane Collection: Capturing methane gas from waste for energy.

• Solid Cap: Covering waste to prevent water infiltration.

• Open Cell: Waste disposal area without liners.

• Leachate: Liquid formed by water passing through waste.

• Leachate Collection: System to collect and treat leachate.

• Closed Cell: Waste disposal area with liners.

• HDPE Liner: High-density polyethylene liner to contain waste.

• Gravel: Used for drainage in waste disposal areas.

• Clay: Natural material used for sealing waste containment areas.

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Unit 9 Global Change

Ozone Depletion

Formation of Ozone

O2 + UV-C = O + O
O + O2 → O3 (ozone)

• Ozone layer: A layer of ozone gas in the Earth's stratosphere

• Formation: Ozone is formed through the interaction of oxygen molecules and ultraviolet (UV) radiation

• Ozone formation process: UV radiation splits oxygen molecules (O2) into individual oxygen atoms, which then react with other oxygen molecules to form ozone (O3)

• Importance: The ozone layer absorbs most of the Sun's harmful UV radiation, protecting life on Earth from its damaging effects

• Ozone depletion: Human activities, such as the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), can lead to the destruction of ozone molecules, causing a thinning of the ozone layer

• Montreal Protocol: An international agreement aimed at phasing out the production and use of ozone-depleting substances to protect the ozone layer

Effects

• Human activities primarily cause ozone depletion.

• Key human activities that contribute to ozone depletion include the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and other ozone-depleting substances.

• Ozone depletion leads to increased ultraviolet (UV) radiation levels reaching the Earth's surface.

• Increased UV radiation can harm human health, such as skin cancer, cataracts, and weakened immune systems.

• Efforts to reduce ozone depletion include the Montreal Protocol, which aims to phase out the production and use of ozone-depleting substances.

Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse gases (GHGs)

• GWP is the global warming potential standard

• CO2 has a GWP of 1 (mostly abundant and this portion of greenhouse gases is the biggest contributor)

• CFCs are found in coolants with a GWP of 4,000 to 10,000

  • These CFCS were soon switched to HFCS which has a GWP of 12,000 but is less harmful to the ozone layer

• N2O is nitrous oxide found in agricultural systems

• CH4 is methane which is released by cows

An increase in GHGs has led to an increase in global temperatures which is pretty much climate change

1. Some solar radiation reflects off the atmosphere and some is absorbed by the ground (soil or oceans)

2. Infrared (heat) is released out to space

3. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the troposphere (natural process)

4. Excess greenhouse gases trap heat in our atmosphere causing the earth to warm

Global Effects

Melting Ice Caps

• Ice is a habitat

  • Land ice is melting, ice has a high albedo

Albedo is how well something can reflect sun rays

• Soil is exposed which has low albedo

• Permafrost is melting which releases methane through decomposition

Invasive Species

Organisms that can now live where they couldn’t before

Heatwaves

High temperatures lasting for a week or more

Extinction

Organisms that lose their habitat

Forest Fires

Hot dry climates increase the risk of forest fires

Sea Level Rises and Flooding

ice melts, sea levels rise causing permanent flooding

Drought

Higher temperatures mean increased evaporation which results in more drought

Severe Weather

Higher temperatures lead to more evaporation causing more precipitation

Bleached Coral Reefs

Coral gets stressed easily, spitting out algae causing the coral to bleach

Impacts of Ocean Acidification

Ecosystem Impacts

Oceans have absorbed most of the greenhouse gasses because there is mostly ocean which leads to the oceans becoming warmer mainly in the Arctic, this causes ocean land ice to melt, thermal expansion of water, habitat loss

habitats are lost because animals can’t live in the warmer water and coral becomes stressed

Ocean Acidification

pH has fallen by .1 in the ocean, going from 8.2 to 8.1 (30% increase in acidity) this causes shells to dissolve that are made out of calcium carbonate because the hydrogen ion gets in the way of the carbonate bonding

Shells dissolve due to ocean acidity as the increased concentration of hydrogen ions in the water reacts with the calcium carbonate in the shells, resulting in their dissolution.

The chemical formula for ocean acidity is not a single compound, but rather a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in seawater. When hydrogen ions combine with water (H2O), they form hydronium ions (H3O+), which can contribute to the acidification of the ocean. The process of ocean acidification can have detrimental effects on marine organisms, including shell destruction in some species.

Different Species

Native species is a group of organisms that nurmally live in an area

An introduced species is an organism that is not native to an area and is most likely brought over by humans

Invasive species are organisms that are not native that dosedamage to an ecosystem

Human Impact on Biodiversity

Habitat loss

*1 largest factor

Solution: habitat horridord for our animals to move around within protected areas

Invasive speices

Invasive species are harmful because they disrupt ecosystems by outcompeting native species for resources and altering habitats. They are non-native organisms that can cause economic and environmental damage.

Polution

Pollution has detrimental effects on human impact on biodiversity as it can contaminate air, water, and soil, leading to the destruction of habitats, the decline of species populations, and the disruption of ecosystems.

Population

The increase in human population leads to habitat destruction, pollution, and overexploitation of resources, which negatively impacts biodiversity by reducing species diversity and causing species extinction.

Climate Change

Climate change negatively affects biodiversity by altering ecosystems, causing habitat loss, disrupting species interactions, and increasing the risk of extinction for many plant and animal species.

Over Harvesting

Poaching (Killing an organism for a part of it's body)

Overharvesting is harmful to biodiversity as it depletes populations of species, disrupts ecosystems, and can lead to the extinction of certain organisms.