Hist Final Study Guide

Caudillos: Strong, authoritarian leaders, often military-based, who maintain personal power over a country through charisma, coercion, and sometimes violence, rather than through democratic institutions. They typically have strong local or regional influence and represent the voice of the people in a paternalistic way.

Porfirio Díaz: A Mexican military leader and dictator who ruled from 1876 to 1911. Díaz oversaw significant modernization and economic growth in Mexico, but his regime also entrenched inequality, led to the exploitation of workers and indigenous communities, and caused widespread discontent, culminating in the Mexican Revolution.

Tienda de raya: Company stores that existed during the Porfiriato, where workers were often paid in credit or scrip instead of money, tying them to the store and perpetuating cycles of debt and dependency, which contributed to the exploitation of laborers, particularly in rural areas.

Mexican Revolution: A social and political upheaval from 1910 to 1920 aimed at overthrowing the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. It involved a broad range of social groups, including peasants, workers, and intellectuals, and led to the redistribution of land, the establishment of labor rights, and a new political order, cemented by the Mexican Constitution of 1917.

Flores Magón brothers: Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magón were radical Mexican intellectuals and activists who played a significant role in the early stages of the Mexican Revolution. They were advocates of anarchism and socialism, calling for the dismantling of the capitalist system and the establishment of a more equitable society.

Francisco I. Madero: A Mexican revolutionary leader and president (1911–1913) who opposed Porfirio Díaz and championed democratic reforms. Madero’s presidency was cut short by his assassination in 1913, but his ideas influenced the course of the Mexican Revolution.

Emiliano Zapata: A leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, Zapata was a revolutionary general who led a peasant-based movement in southern Mexico. He championed land reform, specifically the return of land to indigenous communities, encapsulated in his rallying cry “Tierra y Libertad” (Land and Liberty).

Constitution of 1917 (Mexico): The Mexican Constitution, drafted during the Mexican Revolution, was groundbreaking in its inclusion of progressive provisions, including land reforms, labor rights, and the separation of church and state. It was the first major constitution to recognize social rights as part of the legal framework.

Álvaro Obregón: A key military leader and politician during the Mexican Revolution, Obregón later became president of Mexico (1920–1924). He helped stabilize post-revolutionary Mexico, implemented major land reforms, and established a stronger central government.

Lázaro Cárdenas: President of Mexico from 1934 to 1940, Cárdenas is remembered for his land redistribution policies, the nationalization of Mexico's oil industry, and his strong support for workers' rights and indigenous populations. His administration cemented the foundations of modern Mexican statehood.

José Vasconcelos: A Mexican intellectual and political figure who promoted education and cultural integration. Vasconcelos was a strong advocate for mestizaje (cultural and racial mixing) and the idea of La Raza Cósmica, a vision of a unified Latin American identity that transcended racial divisions.

Diego Rivera: A Mexican painter and muralist, Rivera was one of the leading figures of the Mexican muralism movement. His murals often depicted revolutionary ideals, social justice, and the history of Mexico, with a focus on indigenous and working-class struggles.

The “Cosmic Race”: A concept developed by José Vasconcelos, proposing that the future of humanity lies in a new, mixed race (mestizo) that combines the best qualities of all peoples and cultures, leading to a harmonious and universal civilization.

Great Depression: A worldwide economic downturn that began in 1929 and had profound effects on Latin American economies, exacerbating poverty and unemployment. It led to economic reforms and shifts toward more state-controlled economies in several countries in the region.

Fascism: An authoritarian political ideology that emphasizes nationalism, dictatorial leadership, militarism, and the suppression of opposition. Fascist movements often reject democracy and promote a centralized, autocratic state, using propaganda and violence to maintain control.

Benito Mussolini: The founder of Italian fascism and the country’s dictator from 1922 to 1943. Mussolini’s regime was marked by totalitarian control, aggressive nationalism, and the expansion of Italy's empire through military conquest.

Mein Kampf: The autobiographical manifesto of Adolf Hitler, in which he outlined his political ideas, including his theories of racial hierarchy, anti-Semitism, and his vision for an expansionist Nazi regime.

Falange: A Spanish fascist political movement founded by José Antonio Primo de Rivera in the 1930s. The Falange promoted authoritarian rule, nationalist ideals, and the integration of Catholicism into the Spanish political system, becoming the basis for Francisco Franco's dictatorship.

José Antonio Primo de Rivera: The founder of the Spanish Falange and a prominent fascist leader. He was a key figure in the rise of authoritarianism in Spain and was executed during the Spanish Civil War.

Estado Novo (Spain): Francisco Franco’s authoritarian regime, which emerged after his victory in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). It lasted until his death in 1975, marked by repression, nationalism, and a corporatist economic model.

Francisco Franco: Spanish dictator who ruled Spain from 1939 until his death in 1975. He established a fascist-style regime that controlled Spanish political and social life, promoting nationalism and conservatism while suppressing regional cultures and political opposition.

Pilar Primo de Rivera: The sister of José Antonio Primo de Rivera, she was the leader of the Sección Femenina, a women’s organization that supported Francisco Franco’s regime and promoted traditional, conservative values regarding women’s roles in society.

José Carlos Mariátegui: A Peruvian Marxist intellectual and activist who is known for his work on the intersection of indigenous identity and Marxist theory. He argued for the inclusion of indigenous struggles in the broader revolutionary movements in Latin America.

CONAIE: The Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador, an organization that advocates for the rights of indigenous peoples in Ecuador, focusing on land reform, cultural preservation, and political representation.

Scientific Racism: A pseudo-scientific ideology that used biological theories to justify racial hierarchies, promoting the idea that certain races were superior to others. It played a significant role in justifying slavery, colonialism, and discriminatory policies.

Indigenismo: A cultural and political movement in Latin America that sought to elevate the role and identity of indigenous people within national societies. It emphasized the value of indigenous cultures and traditions, though it was sometimes critiqued for being paternalistic or overly focused on assimilation.

Mestizaje: The process and cultural concept of racial and ethnic mixing, especially between indigenous, European, and African peoples. It is a defining feature of many Latin American identities and has been both celebrated and criticized as a form of cultural assimilation.

Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces (GRFA): A military-led government in Peru from 1968 to 1980, led by Juan Velasco Alvarado, that implemented agrarian reforms, nationalized industries, and sought to redistribute wealth and power to the poorer classes.

Juan Velasco: The leader of the GRFA in Peru, he introduced progressive reforms such as land redistribution, the nationalization of key industries, and a focus on indigenous and rural empowerment.

Día del Indio/Campesino (Peru): A day designated to celebrate indigenous and rural communities in Peru, introduced by the Velasco government to honor their contributions to the country’s development and to raise awareness about their struggles.

Pachakutik: An indigenous political movement in Ecuador, founded in the 1990s, which advocates for indigenous rights, social justice, and environmental protection, often challenging neoliberal policies and supporting eco-friendly economic models.

William Walker: An American filibuster who attempted to establish a pro-slavery regime in Nicaragua in the 1850s. His brief rule was marked by his efforts to expand U.S. territorial influence in Central America.

José Santos Zelaya: President of Nicaragua from 1893 to 1909, known for his liberal reforms and his efforts to modernize the country. He resisted U.S. influence, which ultimately led to his ousting.

Augusto César Sandino: A Nicaraguan revolutionary leader who fought against U.S. military occupation in the 1920s and 1930s. His resistance against U.S. imperialism became a symbol of national sovereignty.

Guardia Nacional/National Guard (Nicaragua): A military force in Nicaragua, initially trained by the United States, which became the main tool of the Somoza family’s dictatorship in the 20th century.

Anastasio Somoza García: The Nicaraguan dictator who ruled from 1936 to 1956, establishing a family dynasty that maintained power through political repression, corruption, and close ties to the United States.

Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN): A socialist revolutionary group that overthrew the Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua in 1979. It became the ruling political force in Nicaragua, promoting social reforms and aligning with anti-imperialist ideals.