Knowt
Note
Studied by 34 peopleNoteStudied by 20 peopleNoteStudied by 13 peopleNoteStudied by 13 peopleNoteStudied by 10 peopleNoteStudied by 18952 people
Flashcards 1-34 (3 MISSING)
The Song dynasty in China utilized Confucianism and imperial bureaucracy to maintain its rule.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: East Asia
Confucianism emphasizes unequal relationships such as a father and son, the superior provides sincerity, benevolence, and genuine. While the inferior responds with deference and obedience.
Mandate of heaven is the idea that a rule was chosen by god/s.
Members of imperial bureaucracy were chosen by the examination system.
Hangzhou = Song Dynasty Capital
Chinese cultural traditions continued and influenced Japan and Korea.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: East Asia
Filial piety is the idea of honoring one’s ancestors and parents for the reverence due the emperor and state officials.
Ideals of patriarchy were reflected through foot binding which was generally practiced among elite women.
China influenced Korea by adopting culture such as religion (Buddhism and Confucianism) but they also retained their identity by creating a phonetic alphabet called Hangul which developed the Korean language.
Song China became increasingly commercialized while depending on free peasant and artisan labor.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: East Asia
Commercialized society = goods were produced to sell at markets rather than local consumption.
China increased commercialization by farming waterways like the grand canal, which facilitated goods, the growth of facilitated crops, and demand of taxes.
Song China flourished due to increased production, expanded trade, and transportation innovations.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: East Asia
China’s economic revolution was because of its rapid population growth, giving China the world’s leading economy in 1200: population
It connected southern song, Jin and Vietnam
The grand canal connected the yellow river with the Yangzi river and allowed products like rice to be transported more easily.
Champa rice led to population increase.
Judaism continued to shape societies in the Middle East and Europe.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Middle East
Judaism originated in the Middle East (Israel, Palestine and Arabia)
Judaism is a Monotheistic religion with one supreme Deity. According to Judaism, God is so sacred and powerful that they were reluctant to say his name. They follow the 10 commandments and they call God a “God of war.”
Christianity continued to shape societies in the Middle East, Europe and Africa.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Middle East
Christianity was originated in the Middle East, founded by Jesus Christ and spread by St. Paul
Christians believe in one Deity that loves all people. In Christianity they follow Jesus' teachings who was crucified under Roman orders. Christians believe in the good news that was taught by St. Paul.
Islam continued to shape societies in the Middle East, Europe, Africa and Asia.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Middle East
Islam originated in the Middle East in the year 610 C.E founded by Muhammad Ibn Abdullah.
In Islam they believe in one Deity, and believe Jesus was the greatest prophet
Quran= Sacred Islamic Scriptures
Umma= The community of all believers
Sufism= Spiritual rituals
The Abbasid Caliphate fragmented and new Islamic states like the Seljuk empire emerged, then dominated by Turkic people.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Middle East
By 1200, The islamic heartland had fractured politically into a series of “sultanates”, many ruled by Persian or Turkish military dynasties. In the thirteenth century, the Mongols invaded the region, put an official end to the [Arab] Abbasid Caliphate in the year 1258, and ruled much of persia for the time.
Arab muslims ruled in Al-Andalus in Spain, while Turkic muslims ruled in the Delhi Sultanate in 1206.
Muslim rule continued to expand in Afro-Eurasia due to military expansion, merchant activity, missionaries and Sufis.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Middle East
Muslim rule= States that practice islam, such as the Abbasid Caliphate, Mali, Al-Andulas in Spain, Delhi Sultanate in India and the Ottoman empire.
Muslims dominated Afro-Eurasian trade networks like the Silk Roads, Sea Roads (= on the Indian Ocean), and Sand Roads (Across the Sahara desert.)
Missionary - A person who spreads their religion
Sufis believe in finding a personal connection with God through love and spiritual practices.
Muslim states encouraged advances in mathematics, literature, and medicine, and muslim scholars preserved and commented on Greek philosophy.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Middle East
The house of Wisdom in Baghdad in the Abbhasid caliphate was a Learning Center for authors , scientists and other professionals to meet.
Muslim Students work together with the ancient Greek followed into Europe largely through Spain and Sicily.
European language changed and new science developed which led to the European Renaissance.
Hinduism continued to shape societies in south and southeast Asia.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: South Asia
Hinduism originated in india.
Hindus believed in reincarnation and the caste system.
Hindu supported the caste system.
that upanishads were Hindu sacred texts.
Buddhism continued to shape societies in south and southeast Asia.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Southeast Asia
Buddhism originated in India, Founded by Siddharta Gautama.
In Buddhism they believed in rebirth, Karma, nirvana, and self-improvement.
Buddhism challenged the caste system.
Theravada Buddhism = teaching of Elders
Mahayana Buddhism = A spiritual path
Bhakti movement = Devotion to on or another of India's gods and goddesses.
New Hindu and Buddhist states emerged in South-East Asia.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: South/southeast Asia
Trade Network the diffused culture and religion from South Asia throughout Southeast Asia: Silk Road
Hinduism in Champa was established by 1,000 and Shiva was worshiped, cows were honored and phallic imagery was common and Khmer Kingdom angkor wat was a hindu temple built.
Mahayana Buddhism facilitated trade on the Malay Kingdom as Buddhist missionaries traveled
New States such as Cahokia developed in the Americas.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Latin America
Cahokia was located in Latin America
Maya Civilization was organized into a fragmented political system of city-states.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Latin America
The Mayan civilization was located in Latin America
The Aztec (Mexica) Empire used religion as a source of legitimacy to rule conquered peoples.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Latin America
The Aztec Empire was located in Latin America, modern-day mexico.
In the Aztec empire the tribute system was a requirement when the required goods were sent to tenochtitlan.’
The Aztec expansion was because they needed the captives from war in order to make sacrifices to the gods.
The Inca Empire utilized imperial bureaucracy and required labor to maintain its rule.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Latin America
The Inca Empire is located in modern-day Peru.
The government bureaucrats in the Inca Empire recorded information through local Imperial tribute collectors and Metropolis.
Coerced labor in the Inca Empire differed from the coerced labor in the Aztec empire because the slaves in the Inca were used for sacrifices and in the Aztec empire they were used as servants.
New states such as the Hausa Kingdoms emerged in Africa.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: West Africa
Post classical West African civilizations exertive control by:
Ghana - drawing wealth from trans-saharan trade and taxing the merchants.
Mali - monopolizing the importance of strategic Goods such as Horses and metals
Hausa cities - forming Urban and Commercial culture and acting as a middleman in West African Commerce.
Great Zimbabwe in East Africa flourished by growing their economy and materials through trade.
Islam expanded in West Africa and Timbuktu became a center of Islamic scholarship.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: West Africa
Timbuktu and Mali was a center of Muslim scholarship by establishing more than 150 lower level quranic schools and forming libraries with thousands of books. Also, the leader Mansa Musa promoted Islam.
The Byzantine Empire was predominantly Eastern Orthodox while Western Christendom (Western Europe was predominantly Catholic).
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Western Europe
By the year 1200, the Byzantine Empire with its capital and Constantinople was declining. tensions increase between the Roman Catholic Church in Western Europe and Eastern Orthodox Christianity in the Byzantine empire. Kievan Rus emerged as a new state affiliated with the Eastern Orthodox church.
Western Europe was politically fragmented and characterized by decentralized monarchies, feudalism, and the manorial system.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Western Europe
Feudalism = a system and politically socially and economically that emerged in regions in the 15th century.
Manorialism = a system ran economically where the lower class worked for landowning Lords in exchange for benefits like protection and housing.
Europe has largely an agricultural society dependent on free and coerced labor, including serfdom.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Western Europe
Serfdom = the system in which the lower class, ( also known as surfs ( we're bound to the land they worked on, they had little freedom, however they were offered protection as exchange.
in western europe, western Christendom had technological innovations that facilitated more productive agriculture, these were cranks flywheels and camshafts.
The Black Death caused a shortage of Labor and serfdom became more free for peasants.
Improved commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade on routes like the Silk Roads, which promoted the growth of new trading cities and states.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: West Africa
Kashgar and Smarkand were located in Central Asia in the Silk Roads.
Ghana and Mali were both located in West Africa, and Timbuktu was in mali. they were along the trans-saharan trade routes.
The trans-saharan slave trade route was developed in West Africa Between 1100 and 1400, around 5,500 slaves made the perilous track across the desert every year.
Innovations in transportation, new forms of credit and development of money economies increased the trade in luxury goods on the Silk Roads, Indian Ocean, and Trans-Saharan trade routes.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: afro Eurasia
Silk Roads - frame and Mattress saddle: it made trading easier because it allowed camels to heavier loads in a stable fashion. paper money: it made a trade easier because it made it unnecessary to carry heavy metal coins. bills of Exchange: it may trade easier because the method of payment was more reliable. Banking houses: it may trade easier because it offers credits to merchants.
Sea roads( Indian Ocean trade Network) Chinese junks and Arab dhows made trade easier because they were new means of calculating latitude, Astrolabe: it made trade easier because it helped calculate latitude. Compass: It had the same use as Astrolabe but an improved version.
Sand roads ( trans-saharan trading networks) Arabian camel Caravans assisted traders to cross the desert without complications.
Demand for luxury goods increased, which caused Chinese, Persian and Indian Artisans to expand production of textiles and porcelain.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: East Asia
Luxury items were traded on the Silk Roads because they were easier to transport over long distance and they would compensate for the long expensive trip.
Luxury products produced in China
Silk
Jade
Tea
Porcelain
paper
Same empires collapsed and the Mongol Khanates replaced them.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Middle East
The Mongols sacked Baghdad in 1258
Chinggis khan, his son's and grandsons created the Mongol world war in the 13th century by using military conquest.
Some tactics that helped the Mongols build and maintain their empire was through terror tactics, horseback archery and space networks.
Mongol Khanates
Golden Horde in russia
Yuan Dynasty in China
Likehanate in Persia.
Expansion of empires like the Mongol Khanates and Mali facilitated Afro-Eurasian trade and communication.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Afro-Eurasia
The Mongols facilitate trade on the Silk Roads by allowing luxury goods to be traded throughout the Western hemisphere.
Mali facilitated trade in the Sand Road by taxing Merchants who traded along the Sahara.
.Contacts and conflicts between empires encouraged technological and cultural transfers.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location:
The Indian Ocean trading network fostered the growth of states.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Southeast Asia
Civilizations along the Swahili Coastline, Kilwa, Mombasa, Malindi, Mogadishu, Swahili Civilization are a mix of Bantu and Arab loan words.
Malacca was in Southeast Asia
Merchants set up diasporic communities along important trade routes, introducing new cultural traditions and being influenced by indigenous cultures.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Southeast Asia
Diaspora: A group of people with a different culture that reside in a
The diasporic communities in Malacca from continents from Asia Andarria, with their own neighborhood.
Ming Admiral Zheng He led Chinese maritime expeditions.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: East Asia
Due to Zheng’s expedition he wanted to enlist people in the tribute system
The voyages ended because the emperor died.
Due to the voyages, Europeans started to enter Asian waters.
New environmental knowledge, like advanced knowledge of monsoon winds, led the
expansion of long-distance trade routes.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: South Asia + East Africa
The monsoons allowed the sails of travelers, depending on the season, to cross the Indian Ocean.
Travelers wrote about their travels in Afro-Eurasia.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location: Afro-Eurasia
. Crops and diseases diffused along trade routes.
Date: 1200 - 1450
Location:
35. Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade.
Gunpowder was invented in China.
Mughal, Ottoman, Safavid, Russian Empire
Gunpowder and cannons were also used by Europeans establishing trade-post empires in Asia and Africa.
36. Land empires expanded, including the Manchu (Qing), the Mughal Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Safavid Empire.
Location: China | Ethnicity of Rulers: Manchu
Location: India | Religion of rulers: Muslim | Religion of conquered people: Hindus | Akbar is remembered for his religious pluralism and integration, while Aurangzeb's sectarian and authoritarian approach created a growing divide between the Mughal Empire and its non-Muslim subjects.
Location: Middle East | Religion of Rulers: Muslim | Religion of conquered people: Christian | The devshirme system involved the Ottoman Empire taking young Christian boys from the Balkans, converting them to Islam, and training them for roles in the military or bureaucracy, such as the elite Janissary corps. While coercive, the system also provided some families with the opportunity for their sons to rise to power and wealth within the empire.
Location: Asia/Middle East | Shia Islam
37. Political and religious disputes led to rivalries between empires such as the Safavid-Mughal conflict.
The Safavid Empire and the Mughal Empire fought over land in modern-day Afghanistan.
The Songhai Empire, located in West Africa, fought with Morocco over land.
The Safavid Empire fought with the Ottoman Empire because of religious and territorial disputes, primarily over control
of Mesopotamia.
38. Rulers such as the Ottomans recruited bureaucratic elites and developed military professionals to maintain centralized control.
The devshirme program in the Ottoman Empire produced military professionals by recruiting Christian boys from the Balkans, converting them to Islam, and training them to serve as soldiers or administrators in the Ottoman Empire.
These professionals were called Janissaries.
39. Rulers such as the Qing continued to use religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize their rule.
Qing rulers used Confcuain teachings and had traditional imperial portraits done in the Chinese style to legitimize their rule.
European kings and queens claimed divine right to rule. This is an example of religion as a source of legitimacy.
Human sacrifice practiced by the Aztec Empire legitimize their rule because it was seen as essential to appease the gods and ensure the survival of the world.
40. Rulers such as the Ming used tribute collection and innovative tax-collection systems to generate revenue.
The Ming dynasty China required that taxes be paid in silver.
41. The Protestant Reformation marked a break with existing Christian traditions.
Two beliefs of Martin Luther’s: Luther believed in faith alone for salvation and scripture as the sole authority, challenging the Church’s practices.
The Thirty Years' War = a conflict between Catholics and Protestants, ending with the Peace of Westphalia.
The Counter-Reformation = the Catholic response to Protestantism, reaffirming doctrines through the Council of Trent and the Jesuits.
42. Political rivalries between the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire intensified the split within Islam between Sunni and Shi’a.
The initial difference between Sunni and Shia Muslims was a conflict over who should succeed Muhammad.
The majority of Muslims today are Sunni.
43. Sikhism developed in India as a blend of Hinduism and Islam.
Sikhism developed in India and became a separate religious community including these practices: Sikhism emphasized monotheism, equality, selfless service, and meditation while rejecting the caste system.
Two more examples of new religious ideas in the early modern period:
Bhakti Hinduism in India, as described by poet Mirabai, emphasized devotion to a personal god and rejected the caste system.
Neo-Confucianism in China, as described by Wang Yangming, focused on inner knowledge and self-cultivation.
44. Scientific knowledge and technology from the Classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds spread and facilitated European technological innovations allowing for more trans-oceanic travel.
Shaffer defines "Southernization" as the spread of technologies, ideas, and agricultural products from Southern Asia to the world, significantly shaping global trade and societies, especially in the Mediterranean.
The lateen sail was originally developed by the Arabs.
The compass was originally developed by the Chinese.
New European shipbuilding technology helped Europeans to sail the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. These designs included the caravel, carrack, and fluyt.
45. Western European states such as Spain sponsored transoceanic maritime exploration, looking for alternative routes to Asia.
Asian trade network the Europeans wanted access to:
The Indian Ocean trade network.By finding a maritime route to Asia instead of a land-based route, Europeans were trying to avoid:
Middle Eastern and Central Asian intermediaries.
46. Western European states including the Spanish, Portuguese, British, French, and Dutch established new maritime empires in the Americas.
Spain claimed:
The Caribbean
Mexico
Central America
South America (excluding Brazil)
Parts of North America (such as Florida, the Southwest, and California)
Differences between Spanish/Portuguese colonies in the Americas and British settler colonies in the Americas:
Spanish/Portuguese colonies relied heavily on the encomienda and plantation systems, focusing on resource extraction and the conversion of indigenous people to Christianity.
British settler colonies were more focused on permanent settlement, farming, and creating self-sustaining economies, with less emphasis on large-scale resource extraction.
47. The new connections between the Eastern and Western hemispheres resulted in the Columbian Exchange.
The Columbian Exchange = the transfer of biological items (e.g. plants, animals, and diseases) between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia.
The Columbian Exchange was NOT a trade route.
Two more items native to the Americas transferred in the Columbian Exchange:
Maize (corn)
Potatoes
Two more items native to Afro-Eurasia transferred in the Columbian Exchange:
Horses
Smallpox
48.European colonization of the Americas led to the transfer of diseases, substantially reduced indigenous populations.
This transfer of disease was part of the Columbian Exchange.
Native Americans did not have immunity to Afro-Eurasian diseases, which resulted in the Great Dying.
Three specific diseases:
Smallpox
Measles
Influenza
Native Americans lacked immunity to Afro-Eurasian diseases because they had never been exposed to these diseases before, as their societies had been isolated from the Old World for thousands of years.
49. Cash crops were grown on plantations in the Americas with coerced labor and were exported to Europe and the Middle East.
Cash crop grown in Brazil and the Caribbean: Sugar.
These crops were almost exclusively for export.
50. American foods became staple crops in Afro-Eurasia, nutritionally benefitting populations there.
This transfer of plants and animals was part of the Columbian Exchange.
Corn, potatoes, and cassava = high in calories.
As a result, populations in Afro-Eurasia increased.
51. Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals were brought by Europeans to the Americas, and enslaved Africans brought other foods.
This transfer of plants and animals was part of the Columbian Exchange.
Europeans brought horses and cattle.
Effect of horses on North and South America: Horses revolutionized transportation, hunting, and warfare, particularly for Native American groups like the Plains Indians.
Africans brought okra. This and other foods helped create and sustain Afro-American cultures throughout the Americas.
52. Western European states including the Spanish, Portuguese, British, French, and Dutch established new trading-post empires in Asia and Africa.
Motivations for European participation in the Indian Ocean commercial network:
Desire for direct access to the lucrative spice trade.
Religious motivation to spread Christianity.
Desire to bypass Muslim and Venetian intermediaries in the trade network.
Search for new sources of wealth and resources to strengthen their economies.
Four specific ports the Portuguese controlled in the Indian Ocean commercial network:
Goa (India)
Malacca (Malaysia)
Mombasa (Kenya)
Hormuz (Persian Gulf)
53. Spain colonized the Philippines.
As a result of Spain’s colonization of the Philippines:
a. Economic changes: The Philippines became a key part of the Spanish colonial economy, integrating into the global trade network, particularly in the Manila galleon trade.
b. Religious changes: Christianity, especially Catholicism, spread widely, converting much of the population.Filipinos resisted Spanish colonial oppression by leading revolts and fleeing to mountainous areas.
54. Some Asian states adopted restrictive or isolationist trade policies in response to new European participation in long-distance trade networks.
Ming dynasty China ended the voyages of Zheng He because they were costly and the emperor believed that China should focus on internal stability rather than foreign exploration.
“The Chinese withdrawal from the Indian Ocean actually facilitated European entry. It cleared the way for the Portuguese to penetrate the region.”
Tokugawa Japan’s restrictive trade policies: Japan adopted a policy of isolation (sakoku), limiting foreign contact, especially with Europeans, and allowing only limited trade with the Dutch and Chinese in designated ports like Nagasaki.
55. Existing trade networks in the Indian Ocean commercial network continued to flourish despite disruption due to the arrival of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch merchants.
Groups who remained prominent in the Indian Ocean commercial network despite the arrival of Europeans: Indian, Arab, and Chinese merchants. These groups continued to play a significant role in regional trade, often competing with or cooperating alongside European powers.
56. New colonial economies in the Americas depended on agriculture and utilized coerced labor.
Spanish encomienda system = A labor system in which Spanish settlers were granted the legal right to extract forced labor from indigenous people in exchange for protection and Christianization.
Spanish hacienda system = A system where Spanish landowners used indigenous labor to work large estates (haciendas) to produce crops for local consumption and export, often under harsh conditions.
Chattel slavery = A form of coerced labor in which the enslaved person is treated as property and can be bought and sold.
Indentured servitude = A system where individuals worked for a specified period (usually 4-7 years) in exchange for passage to the Americas, food, and shelter. After their term of service, they were typically free to start their own lives.
The Spanish forced Native Americans in Potosí to mine silver.
57. Slavery in Africa continued in its traditional forms, incorporating enslaved people into households and exporting them to the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean regions.
Five reasons the transatlantic slave system was so different from the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean slave trades:
Scale and volume
Racial dimension
Hereditary slavery
Focus on agricultural labor
Institutionalization and racialized slavery
58. Plantation economies in the Americas increased the demand for slave labor, leading to the transatlantic slave system.
Plantation = a large agricultural estate, often growing just one or two crops (two example crops: ** sugar and tobacco).
The size of the transatlantic slave system was unique in the history of slavery. 12 million people were traded.
African diaspora = The spread of African peoples and cultures to various parts of the world, especially the Americas, as a result of the transatlantic slave trade.
59. European rulers used mercantilism to expand and control their economies and claim overseas territories.
In the economic system of mercantilism, governments wanted to increase exports and accumulate bullion (aka silver and gold).
In a mercantilist system, colonies provided markets for manufactured goods from the “mother” country.
The global fur trade expanded in this mercantilist system. Fur was so valuable it was called “soft gold.”
Indigenous people of Siberia had to pay tribute called yasak in the form of furs when they were conquered by the Russian Empire.
60. European rulers and merchants started joint-stock companies to finance exploration and compete against one another in global trade.
Joint-stock companies reduce risk for investors by allowing them to pool their resources and share the profits or losses, thus spreading the financial risk. (#47, Strayer pp.254-256)
Two examples of early modern joint-stock companies:
British East India Company
Dutch East India Company
Some joint-stock companies helped states build colonial empires, such as the Dutch East India Company in Indonesia and the British East India Company in India.
61. Spanish rulers used silver from their American colonies to purchase Asian goods and satisfy China’s demand for silver.
Indigenous people were forced to labor in the silver mines in Potosí.
Silver flow: Potosí in Bolivia → Acapulco in Mexico → Spain via the Atlantic Ocean OR Manila in the Philippines via the Pacific Ocean → Ming dynasty China.
China was called the “Middle Kingdom” because it considered itself the center of civilization and viewed all other cultures as peripheral.
The Spanish peso became a global currency, used to purchase goods from China, especially silk and porcelain.
62. The Little Ice Age led to economic changes.
The Little Ice Age was a period of significantly cooler temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere between the 14th and 19th centuries.
Effects:
Shorter growing seasons and lower food production.
May have contributed to the Great Dying in the Americas.
Made furs a more valuable trade commodity.
63. Peasant and artisan labor intensified, such as in China’s silk industry, India’s cotton industry, and Europe’s wool and linen industries.:
Artisan = someone who creates a product by hand or using low-tech tools.
Silk from China and cotton from India continued to be traded as part of the Indian Ocean commercial network.
64. The trans-Atlantic slave trade led to demographic changes in Africa, causing changes in gender roles and family structures.
Two effects of the transatlantic slave system on women in West Africa:
Increased gender imbalance due to the capture and exportation of men, leaving more women than men in some areas.
Disruption of family structures, as many women were left behind or had family members taken as slaves.
Signares = African women who married European traders, often in French colonies like Senegal, and became influential in trade and society.
65. State expansion and centralization led to resistance such as the Pueblo Revolt in Spanish America.
The Spanish empire forced conversion to Roman Catholicism in their empires in the Americas.
Some Indigenous Americans converted, while others resisted. Examples of resistance:
Túpac Amaru II’s resistance movement.
The Pueblo Revolt in the American Southwest.
Another example of resistance to state expansion was the Cossack rebellions in the Russian Empire.
66. Slave resistance challenged existing authorities in the Americas.
Maroon societies in the Americas such as Palmares were one form of resistance by enslaved Africans.
Two other methods of resistance:
Revolts and uprisings (e.g., the Haitian Revolution).
Running away or escaping to remote areas.
67. Imperial conquests created new political and economic elites, such as the Manchu in Qing China and the Spanish casta system in the Americas.
The Manchus were from Manchuria and conquered China during the Qing expansion.
Manchu policies toward ethnic Han Chinese and ethnic minorities in Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet: The Manchus maintained separate laws and practices for themselves, while imposing their rule over ethnic Han Chinese and non-Han ethnic groups, sometimes integrating them into the empire but also enforcing cultural assimilation and loyalty to the Qing dynasty.
The Spanish empire in the Americas included modern-day Mexico and modern-day Peru (along with all other countries in the Americas that speak Spanish today!).
The Spanish established a race-based social hierarchy called the casta system:
Peninsulares = Spaniards born in Spain, typically at the top of the social hierarchy.
Creoles = People of Spanish descent born in the Americas.
Mestizos = People of mixed European and Indigenous American ancestry.
Indigenous Americans = Native peoples of the Americas, typically at the bottom of the social hierarchy.
68. Existing political and economic elites such as European nobility lost power to increasingly powerful monarchs and leaders.
The Russian Empire was "highly autocratic" (power was centralized in the ruler) because the Tsar (or Tsarina) held absolute power and made decisions without significant checks or balances from other political bodies. The rulers maintained tight control over all aspects of governance, including the military, bureaucracy, and the economy.
This meant that Russian nobles called boyars lost power.
69. The Atlantic trading system led to the mixing of African, American, and European cultures and peoples.
The transatlantic slave system brought enslaved Africans to the Americas, mostly from West and Central Africa.
In the Spanish empire in the Americas, mestizos were people of European and Indigenous origin.
In the Spanish and Portuguese empires in the Americas, mulattoes were people of European and African origin.
Racial classification of people with Black ancestry in North America was different from Brazil because in North America, the racial categories were more rigid and based on the "one-drop rule", whereas in Brazil, racial identity was more fluid and based on appearance, social status, and other factors, leading to a wider variety of racial categories.
70. Interactions between newly connected hemispheres led to the creation of new syncretic religions.
Syncretism = blending of elements from different religious traditions.
Examples of syncretic religious practices in the Americas: a. Andean Christianity
b. Vodou in Haiti
c. Santería in Cuba
d. Candomblé and Macumba in BrazilSyncretic religion created in India in the early modern period: Sikhism.
Syncretic religious practice created in China in the early modern period: Neo-Confucianism.
Some rulers, such as Aurangzeb in the Mughal Empire, objected to religious syncretism. An Islamic renewal movement called Wahhabi Islam developed in central Arabia.
71. The expansion of maritime trading networks fostered the growth of states in Africa, including Asante and the Kingdom of the Kongo.
The Kingdom of the Kongo, Asante, and Dahomey were all West or Central African states that participated in the transatlantic slave trade.
The West African state of Benin at first avoided participation in the slave trade but was later compelled to join in.
72. Some states such as the Mughal and Ottoman empires accommodated the ethnic and religious diversity of their subjects.
While Akbar was tolerant of the Hindu majority in the Muslim Mughal Empire, restraining the “more militantly Islamic ulama (religious scholars) and removing the special tax (jizya) on non-Muslims,” Aurangzeb was different. He destroyed Hindu temples and reinstated the jizya.
The Muslim Ottoman Empire tolerated Christians and Jews.
After the Qing expansion, the Manchus tolerated Mongolian, Tibetan, and Muslim cultures.
73. Some states such as Spain and Qing China suppressed diversity or limited particular groups’ roles in society.
After 1492, the king and queen of Spain outlawed the practice of Islam or Judaism, requiring Spanish subjects to convert to Roman Catholicism or be exiled.
Jesuits did not have much success in converting people to Christianity in Qing China because they struggled to make significant inroads due to cultural differences, and the Qing state was largely resistant to foreign influence, viewing Christianity as a challenge to Confucian values and traditions.
NoteStudied by 34 peopleNoteStudied by 20 peopleNoteStudied by 13 peopleNoteStudied by 13 peopleNoteStudied by 10 peopleNoteStudied by 18952 people