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4th QTR Final Exams

Aralin 1: Renaissance

• Renaissance is a french word meaning “rebirth”

  • It is a period in Europe of cultural, artistic, and economic rebirth

  • Promoted rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature, and art

  • Most classics were translated into Latin so more people can understand

• It is a period in history from the Middle Ages to modernity

• Covers the 15th-16th centuries

Economic Forces (Puwersang Pangkabuhayan)

• The development of agriculture and technology resulted in the rise of various products which helped in commerce

• The revival of Europe’s economy started with the expansion of farmed lands and increase of agricultural productions

• Dutch and Belgian-led construction of dykes and windmills enhanced water management (irrigation) efforts

• As the commerce expanded, the usage of coins and letters of credit were normalized

The Medici of Florence 

• One of the most powerful families

• They established one of the biggest banks of Italy

• Their richness were rooted to their banks in the biggest cities of Europe

• Benefited from their debt to merchants, rich people, and princes which is why they are called the greatest financial dynasty

Philosophy

• “Classics” were the main characteristic during the Renaissance era, and Aristotle & Plato’s works were translated into Latin

• The Renaissance transformed literature by emphasizing humanism, individualism, and the use of vernacular languages.

  • Renaissance writers, or Vernaculars began to make and use their own languages (which led to Italian, English, and Spanish) instead of Latin. 

  • Vernaculars(everyday language) made it easier for people to understand the ideas of philosophers and written literature.

• Humanism

  • Focuses on things related to people’s curiosity and social issues. Emphasizes people’s worth, imagination, and abilities.

  • Humanist writers explored themes such as human nature, morality, and the pursuit of knowledge

• Individualism

  • Focuses on the importance of a person’s personality and uniqueness.

  • Renaissance literature emphasized the importance of experience and creativity.

  • Writers depicted the complex characters and explored the inner workings of the human mind.

• Secularism

  • Emphasizes on living well and understanding better the political, economic, social, and intellectual activities of the world.

Renaissance Man

• In the Book of the Courtier (1516), Baldassare Castiglione described the traits of a Renaissance gentleman from many others.

• Renaissance Man (master in one field)

  • Well-respected by their peers, and they portray the joy of art and their creativity was said to be the greatest of all characteristics.

• Renaissance Gentleman (all-rounder)

  • They do not only excel in swordsmanship and horse riding, they also have the talent to write poems, sing, dance, and play instruments.

  • They should also have the skill to communicate about various topics and to show his knowledge in classics.

The Beginning of the Renaissance

• First started in cities of Western Italy in 1350.

• The location of Italy which was surrounded by seas gave way in developing their trades. 

• This helped Italy gain wealth.

• Because of this wealth, this supplied Italian merchants to commission arts to artists which gave them a source of income.

• The commissioned artworks were usually used as décor in their homes and mansions.

• Patrons 

  • Rich merchants who give financial support to popular painters/sculptors 

  • Lorenzo de Medici & Pope Leo X

    • They are father (Lorenzo) and son (Leo)

• Trades made by the Arabs in the east resulted in the coming in of new ideas and influences from all around the world.

• Expanded the people’s curiosity, and developed a new system of education and research.

• Johann Gutenberg

  • He invented the movable type printing press

  • It was a device used to print by pressing

  • Through this, he was able to make many copies of a particular letter that were uniform and durable.

  • He used antimony (used to cast the letters), metal press (the one that presses), and oil.

  • This simple and cheap process used paper, which was cheaper than parchment.

  • The usage of paper decreased the prices of books which made them more accessible

  • Aside from its cheapness, the tint holds on to paper better and the print is more visible in paper compared to parchment.

  • This gave people the opportunity to buy books, pamphlets, and newspapers which were new sources of information and research. 

  • His invention of this served as a bridge to learn new things about other cultures, views, traditions, and beliefs of people from all around the world. 

• The Renaissance which started in Italy was spread rapidly in all of Europe because of his invention.

The Legacy of the Renaissance

Literature

• Humanist writers

  • they didn’t invent new ideas/philosophy due to their focus on ancient classics

  • they started abandoning this tradition and wrote using vernacular instead of latin

  • they experimented different literatures and created a topic

  • they researched the dimensions of being a person and emphasized dignity and self-esteem

• Medieval scholars

  • took inspiration from Greek philosophy and scientists like Aristotle

  • many of them emphasized aspects that focus on natural science

• Renaissance thinker

  • focuses on topics that focuses on human interests, use of reasoning in understanding worldly material, as well as how to live calmly

• Francesco Petrarch

  • Father of humanism and Renaissance

  • First to give attention to the beauty of classical literature by using classical literary latin

  • wrote 366 sonnets about Laura

  • first modern poet

  • he was given a lauren crown by the King of Naples

• Giovanni Boccaccio

  • wrote Decameron which is about 7 girls and 3 boys who went to Florence to escape from the Plague.

  • Taught people to get back up no matter how hard life gets.

• Desidarius Erasmus

  • Dutch scholar and priest who explored the Bible’s teachings

  • Wrote The Praise of Folly which caused a reform (Protestant Reformation)

• William Shakespeare

  • greatest dramatist of all times

  • wrote Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth

  • Spread the English Language by inventing new words

• Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra

  • wrote Don Quixote

  • fascinated the imaginations of people due to the theme of desiring an impossible dream and having a lifestyle of being chivalrous

• Michel de Montaige

  • invented essay form

  •  wrote “Essay”

    • first book to showcase the true feelings and thoughts of the writer which abandons “literature of concealment”

• Lope de Vega

  • one of the greatest playwright in Spain

• Geoffrey Chaucer

  • wrote Canterbury Tales

  • greatest poet before William Shakespeare

• Dante Alighieri 

  • known for his divine comedy

• Political theorist

  • tackled about the problems and challenges of a government and being a part of it

• Niccolo Machiavelli

  • Father of Modern Political theory

  • wrote The Prince

  • People are born greedy, with a fluctuating mind, and untrustworthy

    • focuses on how to obtain, keep, and strengthen a leader’s political power

    • Machievellian doctrine = “The end justifies the means”

• Sir Thomas Moore

  • Wrote Utopia

    • ideal society or paradise

  • He was declared as a saint by the Catholic Church

• Literary Forms and Innovations:

  • Sonnet - Renaissance poets, influenced by Petrarch, popularized the sonnet form (e.g., Shakespeare's sonnets).

  • Drama - Renaissance drama flourished with the development of English and Spanish theater, producing timeless plays and tragedies.

  • Epic Poetry - Writers like Edmund Spenser and John Milton revived the epic tradition, composing ambitious narrative poems.

  • Essay - Montaigne's essays and philosophical reflections shaped the development of the personal essay genre.

Art

• Characteristics of High Renaissance Art:

  • Classical balance, harmony, and restraint were prominent features of High Renaissance art.

  • Artists aimed to showcase individual qualities and capture extraordinary character in their works.

  • Religious themes, including depictions of the Virgin Mary, biblical stories, and scenes of Jesus Christ, were common subjects.

  • There was a shift towards secular interests due to increased wealth among the population.

  • Portraiture of important figures and people became more prevalent during this period.

  • In the 15th century, the use of light and shadow (chiaroscuro) added drama and depth to paintings.

  • The adoption of oil painting provided artists with greater flexibility to experiment with techniques and corrections.

  • Artists began using perspective techniques to create realistic and three-dimensional images.

  • The Renaissance introduced the concept of the artist as a unique genius, transcending traditions and societal norms.

  • Many Renaissance artists created works as expressions of their individuality rather than conforming to societal expectations.

  • Financial support from wealthy patrons played a significant role in the advancement of art during this period.

• Key Figures and Contributors in High Renaissance Art:

  • Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337)

    • Helped establish Florence as a center of Renaissance art.

    • Known for naturalistic style and frescoes, especially the series on St. Francis of Assisi.

  • Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

    • Considered a Renaissance polymath for his expertise in various fields.

    • Patronized by Lorenzo de Medici and Francis I of France.

    • Known for masterpieces like the Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, and The Virgin of the Rocks.

  • Masaccio (1401-1428)

    • Florentine painter credited with using scientific laws of perspective.

    • His works reflect a deep understanding of human anatomy and spatial relationships.

  • Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510)

    • Florentine painter famous for mythological and allegorical paintings like “Allegory of Spring” and “The Birth of Venus”

• Donatello (1386-1466)

  • Florentine sculptor known for reviving classical styles, especially in his bronze statue of David and equestrian statue of General Gattamelata.

• Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520)

  • Known for his serene and harmonious compositions, including the "Sistine Madonna" and frescoes in the Vatican.

• Titian (1488-1576)

  • Venetian painter renowned for his use of color and dynamic compositions, such as "Bacchus and Ariadne" and "The Entombment of Christ."

• Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564)

  • Known  for his monumental sculptures and frescoes, including the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

  • Known for masterpieces like the statue of David and the Pieta.

• Innovations and Techniques of High Renaissance Art:

  • High Renaissance art established enduring principles of balance, harmony, and technical mastery in Western art.

  • The period produced some of the most celebrated masterpieces in art history, reflecting the ideals of humanism and individual expression.

  • The innovative techniques and artistic achievements of the High Renaissance laid the groundwork for subsequent developments in art and culture.
    
    

Science

• The Spirit of Inquiry and Scientific Advancements during the Renaissance:

  • During the Renaissance, curiosity and questioning prevailed, stimulating the minds and imaginations of people.

    • This led to scientific research and experiments aimed at uncovering new knowledge and understanding of humanity and the world.

  • Scientists challenged traditional beliefs and theories about the natural world, breaking away from Aristotle's writings.

  • They embraced scientific methodology and empirical observations to generate new knowledge and perspectives.

• Key Figures and their Contributions in Renaissance Science:

  • Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

    • Proposed the Heliocentric Theory, suggesting that the Sun is at the center of the solar system, contrary to Ptolemy's geocentric model.

  • Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

    • Mathematician, astronomer, and physicist who invented the astronomical telescope.

    • Made significant observations, including sunspots, lunar craters, and the phases of Venus, supporting Copernicus' theory.

    • Formulated the laws of falling bodies, demonstrating that all objects fall with the same constant acceleration regardless of weight.

• Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

  • Mathematician and astronomer known for formulating Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion.

• Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

  • Physician who revolutionized the study of human anatomy through detailed post-mortem dissections.

• René Descartes (1596-1650)

  • Mathematician and philosopher who advocated for reason as the basis of human knowledge over traditional sensory-based methodologies.

  • Introduced the idea "cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am), emphasizing the role of consciousness and self

Aralin 2: Protestant Reformation

• The end of the church’s unity.

• A protest against the Catholic Church’s abuse of power and corruption

• Challenged many of  the Church’s doctrines and traditions/rituals

• Was done to get them out of authority

1. Political Conditions

• Interfered in the affairs of the state which weakened the power of the secular rulers.

• Many kings agreed with the reform because they wanted to take back their political power.

2. Economical, social, and intellectual conditions

• The commerce expanded which increased wealth for private individuals.

• Bourgeoisie (middle class)

  • Their wealth is rooted in trade fueled by the desire of profit maximization.

• Secularism; the here and the now

  • Religion should not be involved with the social & political decisions and activities of a country.

• Johanne Gutenberg

  • His invention caused books and manuscripts to increase, causing rapid spread of the Protestant Reformation

3. Religious Crises

• Living in luxury blinded church officials to their duties

  • Living in luxury implies that they’re rich (and corrupt)

• Simony - buying your way for a position in the church

• Selling of Indulgences

  • Where it started

  • The Catholic Church taught people that buying indulgences will lesson your consequences and to lessen your time in purgatory

4. The Beginning of the Protestant Reformation

• Martin Luther 

  • An Augustinian monk who lived in Germany

  • He started the reform and wrote his 95 theses against the selling of indulgences, and the church’s wrong teachings

• Pope Leo X

  • Leader of the church during the time

  • Implemented the selling of indulgences

    • Used the money earned to construct St. Peter’s basilica

• Charles V

  • Demanded Luther to take back his 95 theses

  • Edict of Worms: Luther was declared a heretic and was excommunicated from the Holy Roman Empire

5. Main Doctrines of Protestantism

• Excommunication, inquisition, and index was used to hinder the growth of the reform

• Protestantism: Salvation can only be given by God (only through faith)

  • Catholic Church:                                                                                       Good works + Good Faith (at the same time) = Salvation

• The Bible is the main source of Authority

  • It shall serve as the basis of authority in all actions and rituals that became a part of the religious traditions and dogmas of the Catholic Church that is not based on the Sacred Scriptures

• Priesthood of All Believers

  • According to the teachings of the church, only priests have the power to award sacraments and sacraments are important for salvation

  • This is contrary to Martin Luther’s doctrine of “priesthood of all believers” which states that all Christians can speak directly to God through praying. Everyone can and should be able to read the bible.

• Going against the Pope being the highest leader of the church

  • According to Luther, kings of each state should lead the churches of their own territories. 

  • Luther did not make a church hierarchy, and each of his congregations have been given the freedom to build their own schools that teach Catechism based on Luther’s doctrines.

  • These congregations were implemented in order to identify a unity of faith.

6. The Spread of the Protestant Reformation

• The conflict for power between European Kings and the Catholic Church helped strengthen the support for Lutheranism.

• The intense desire of German princes to be free from the interference of the church, specially their political doings

  • The political motive of the German princes was very clear behind their rebellion against the church.

  • They accepted their excommunication by the Pope and they had the freedom to pick religions for each of their states.

• Even low-class people or serfdoms participated to get the power out of the church.

• Luther’s conservative views on politics were seen in the farmers’ rebellion in 1525.

  • He condemned the rebellion and encouraged the authorities to capture and punish people who participated

  • According to Luther, “godly rules must always be obeyed in all things”

  • This may be considered as a blow against German serfdom although this helped strengthen the alliance between Luther and secular leaders.

• Through Imperial Diets, The church attempted to forcefully make people follow in 1520.

  • German Lutheran rulers proposed formal protests also known as Augsburg Confession.

  • This is where the word “protestant” came from.

  • A wide rebellion followed, and it ended through the Peace of Augsburg that was signed in 1555.

    • According to this, German princes were given to pick a religion (Catholicism or Lutheranism) for their own states.

Anglicanism

• England’s King Henry VIII’s desire to have a son who will be his heir pushed him to set aside from the catholic church.

  • Going against the Catholic church when his marriage to Catherine was not approved by them lead to his excommunication

  • He then established his own church called the Anglican Church with him as the Pope.

  • There are no big differences in doctrine between the English Church and Catholic Church.

    • Anglican Church: Priests can’t marry, should always use English in mass, heavily promoted Luther’s “justification by faith alone”

Calvinism

• John Calvin established one of the greatest sects that spread all throughout Europe.

• Institutes of the Christian Religion

  • Calvin wrote it and it’s considered as the “most theologically authoritative statement of basic Protestant beliefs”. 

  • His doctrine states that God picks specific individuals only to be saved or to have salvation. 

  • People’s salvation depends on the hands of God and no other man. 

• Calvinism spread through Switzerland, Holland (Netherlands), and in Scotland wherein believers are called Presbytarians. In England they are known as Puritans, and in France, Huguenots. 

7. Counter-Reformation

• The Catholic Church formulated a systematic response to the growing protestant reformation in the form of the counter reformation. 

• The first major move taken by the Church against this, was by Pope Paul III who called for the council of trent in 1545.

• The three part series of councils held between 1545-1563 not only addressed the challenging of catholic doctrines by the protestants but also established the crease of self-reform.

• They discussed the Creed of Nicaea, the number of sacraments which should be 7, tradition which was accepted as a source of faith as well as other subjects that have been challenged by Martin Luther in particular which subsequently lead to the denial of the reformer’s idea that humans had no ability to earn salvation through good works. 

• The main subject addressed was the Sacrament of the Eucharist which the church confirmed to include that the bread and wine were believed to truly transform to the body and blood of Christ, although not in appearance. 

  • This assertion was in direct contradiction to the reformists which came as no surprise. 

  • Further doctrine was solidified before the council was interrupted by political disputes again.

Aralin 3: Industrial Revolution

18th-19th Century

• Rapid development of industries

• Modernization of technology, science, buildings, society, politics, economy, and livelihood.

• A period of time with wide advancements in mechanisms which changed the way people think.

• Started in Great Britain after the Agricultural Revolution

• Agricultural Revolution

  • This eventually lead to the Industrial Revolution

  • More people = more production of food

  • Economy increased

  • Farmers used new machines & tools, and built more factories which rapidly increased food production.

• Effects of Agricultural Revolution

  • More income for landowners

  • More supply of food

  • People’s necessities increased

  • Population & migration rate increased because people prefer living in developed places for better opportunities. (like how people from the provinces tend to move to the capital to look for jobs)

• Great Britain

• Why did it start in Great Britain?

  • Great Britain had many coal & iron to power machines and factories

    • During this time, electricity was yet to be invented

  • Has a powerful navy to protect their nation which was surrounded by seas

  • They had lots of money (super rich) so they had the ability to produce and invent more things. 

  • Up to this day, they remain as a 1st world country

• Industrial Revolution

  • “Revolution” meaning a violent or nonviolent way of going against something. It may also mean a rapid development in many aspects.

  • In present time (21st century), we are currently in the 4th Industrial Revolution which includes robots, artificial intelligence, etc.

  • Work hours were reduced, productivity increased due to new machinery

  • More new technology, New farming techniques = more agricultural production

• Factors of the IR’s development

  • Cleanliness & orderliness, illnesses were avoided

  • Better food

  • More inventions & investments

  • Rise in population, and in economy

• Enclosure Movement

  • To take land that had formerly been owned in common by all members of a village (in other words, public property) and make them privately owned by building walls, fences, or hedges around it

  • Power of Eminent Domain (opposite of Enclosure Movement)

    • Getting private property for the public to use with compensation

    • The 1987 Philippine Constitution enshrines the power of eminent domain, providing that "private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation." This establishes the principle that the government can take private property but must do so fairly and justly.

• Inventions

  • Inventions in the Great Britain mostly specialized in cloth, wool, and threads

  • Cotton was a big part of Great Britain’s trades

• Flying Shuttle by John Kay (1733)

  • Holds a bobbin of weft thread

• Spinning Jenny by James Hargreaves (1764)

  • Used to spin wool or cotton

• Water Frame by Richard Arkwright (1769)

  • Could spin large quantities of wool or cotton

• Spinning Mule by Samuel Crompton (1779, no patent)

  • Spinning Jenny + Water Frame 

• Power Loom by Edmund Cartwright (1785)

  • Used water to speed up weaving process

• Transportation and Communication Inventions

• Steam powered locomotives - gave way to open railways

• The Telephone by Alexander Grahambell

• Effects of the Industrial Revolution

  • Population increased, more people migrated

  • The rate of child and forced labor increased

  • Improvement of surroundings such as roads, irrigation & sewage systems

  • New technology and techniques which brought a lot of convenience

  • Two kinds of societies were introduced

    • Proletariat - workers, lower class

    • Bourgeoisie - upper class

Aralin 4: Social Issues

• Two Sides of the world

  • The North side of the world is stereotypically considered as rich while the south is poor.

  • An indication of a country’s wealth is the GDP per capita

  • 75% of the world’s population are from 3rd world countries.

• Globalization 

  • interconnected process involving a lot of people/countries

  • increased trade, communication, and cultural exchange. 

  • It involves the movement of goods, services, information, and people across borders, leading to greater interaction and integration on a global scale. 

• Overpopulation

  • It is when the human population rises dramatically, to an extent exceeding the carrying capacity of the ecological setting.

  • People’s necessities increase

  • From the year 1950-2000, life expectancy rate has increased from 48, it became 68.

  • Aging of the Population - there is an increase in the proportion of older people

    • This is bad for the economy since the number of workers decline relative to the number of consumers.

    • Elder people have special necessities such as medicine, etc.

• Global Warming

  • The long-term rise in the Earth’s temperature due to human activities

  • Increase in greenhouse gasses

  • Can lead to starvation & thirst

• Poverty & Starvation

  • High poverty rates can be a damper on economic growth

  • Can be associated with problems like crime, unemployment, urban decay, poor education, and poor public health.

  • A big problem in many countries

  • 870M individuals are undernourished, and there are 22,000 children who die due to starvation each day

• Migration/Urbanization 

  • It is when people move from one place to another (often in a more urbanized area) with a hope for a job, better wages, and comfortable living

  • Can cause “brain drain” or the decrease of skilled people & professionals in a place where they come from.

• Technological Divide

  • Unequal access to technology created by unequal access to modern telecommunications technology among different demographic groups and regions.

  • Include inequalities in access to computers, smartphones, the Internet, or digital literacy.

• Human Rights

  • The rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status.

  • Going against human rights include abductions, arbitrary arrests, detentions without trial, political executions, assassinations, and torture.

• Human and Drug Trafficking

  • Human Trafficking refers to recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of people through force, fraud or deception, with the aim of exploiting them for profit. 

  • Drug trafficking is a global illicit trade involving the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of substances which are subject to drug prohibition laws. 

  • Both of which goes against human rights

• Child Labor

  • Often defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development.

  • Refers to when underage individuals are forced to do work, and obliging them to leave school for it.

  • Goes against human rights

• Terrorism

  • The use of violence, threats, and fear especially against civilians to bring about a political objective.

  • Also goes against human rights