Greek Art and Architecture: High Classical to Hellenistic

Exam Information

• Next Monday: Bring handwritten notes.
  • Notes must be handwritten; no tablets, computers, or emailed notes will be accepted.
  • Failure to bring handwritten notes will result in a zero grade for the assignment, with no arguments.
• For any questions regarding articles or broken article links, inform the instructor.

High Classical Greek Art & Architecture

The Ideal Human: Canon of Polyclitus

• Represented the perfect or ideal human. This concept was introduced as the "canon of Polyclitus."
• The sculptor Polyclitus used Pythagoras' mathematical harmonious proportion to define the ideal human body.
• This was not merely an artistic preference but a theoretically ideal human form that became a standard for other artists.
• Characterized by precise ratios, detailed muscle definitions, naturalistic and accurate anatomy, and a stoic facial expression.

Parthenon (Temple for Athena)

• The Parthenon, a temple for Athena on the Acropolis, embodies Greek philosophy, including perfection, ideal form, and humanism.
• Architect (Ictinus) and Design:
  • Incorporated harmonious proportions for the building's dimensions (e.g., length to height ratios).
  • Optical Refinements (Entasis): To counteract optical illusions caused by lighting and human perception:
    • The four corner columns are slightly thicker than others. When viewed against a bright sky, these columns would appear thinner due to the way light diffuses at the edges of objects (analogized to a person seen from a dark room looking through a bright doorway, where outlines appear fuzzy and less detailed, making the person seem smaller).
    • Column heights are slightly varied to correct for the optical deformation of parallel lines caused by many vertical elements. This makes the columns appear straight and uniform to the bare eye, even though physically they are subtly non-uniform when measured.
    • This demonstrates Greek architects' meticulous care for a "perfect looking building" from the viewer's perspective, even sacrificing physical uniformity for visual perfection.
• Sculptural Decorations:
  • The building was extensively covered with relief sculptures depicting gods, goddesses, and mythological stories.
  • Metopes (Doric frieze) - Battle of the Lapiths and Centaurs:
    • This mythical battle served as an allegory for the Athenian victory over Persia.
    • Centaurs (half-horse, half-human monsters) symbolized the uncivilized, monstrous Persians.
    • Lapiths (humans) represented the smart, civilized, and superior Athenians.
    • The imagery highlighted Athenian pride in defeating the larger, stronger Persian Empire due to their intelligence and superior civilization.
  • Rebuilding and Significance: The Parthenon was rebuilt after Athens' victory over Persia, attributing the success to their patron goddess, Athena. The temple thus became a symbol of Athenian triumph and sophistication.
  • Frieze (inside upper area) - Panathenaic Festival:
    • Notably, this frieze depicted ordinary Athenian citizens participating in the Panathenaic religious festival.
    • This inclusion of common people in a sacred space, alongside gods, illustrates the concept of humanism within Greek art and architecture, acknowledging the importance of the human element.
• Overall Significance: The Parthenon embodies rationalism, the ideal form (beautiful to the eyes), and humanism, making it a profoundly important structure for understanding ancient Greece.

Late Classical Greek Art

Shifting Ideals and Naturalism

• Throughout Greek periods, art maintained naturalistic depictions of human and animal figures.
• However, these naturalistic forms were still idealized, not purely realistic (e.g., highly symmetrical faces and bodies are uncommon in real life).
• New Canon of Proportion: The ideal human form evolved.
  • Late Classical figures featured slightly smaller heads, making them appear taller and more slender (e.g., a shift from an earlier 1:7 body-to-head ratio to a 1:8 ratio, similar to modern models).
• Extended Use of Space and Dynamism:
  • Sculptures became less stationary and occupied more surrounding space.
  • The contrapposto stance (one knee out, hip shifted, shoulder shifted) remained, but poses became more expansive.
  • Example: Apoxyomenos (The Scraper) by Lysippos: Depicts an athlete scraping oil and dirt from his body (an ancient cleaning ritual). His outstretched arms and slightly separated legs extend into the surrounding space, demonstrating a wider, more dynamic use of sculptural form.

Humanization of Gods and Goddesses

• Gods and goddesses were depicted as more human-like, engaged in everyday human activities and exhibiting human emotions.
• Example: Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles:
  • Considered the first female nude in European art history (excluding prehistoric examples).
  • Depicts Aphrodite about to take a bath, a mundane human activity. This challenged previous norms where male figures were nude, but women were depicted as modest and covered.
  • Initially commissioned by one city but rejected due to the nudity; subsequently accepted by the city of Knidos.
  • Known as "Venus Pudica" (modest Venus): Although nude, she is depicted as covering herself, appearing modest or slightly embarrassed, and not directly meeting the viewer's gaze.
  • This raises questions about the depiction of the female body in a male-dominated artistic tradition: was it purely for appreciating divine beauty, or did it subtly sexualize the female form?
• Example: Hermes and the Infant Dionysus by Praxiteles:
  • Depicts Hermes carrying the infant Dionysus (Zeus's son with a mortal, hidden from Hera).
  • Hermes shows human compassion by trying to entertain the baby (historians suggest he was holding grapes, Dionysus's symbol, like a mobile).
  • This portrays gods with human minds and actions, showing pity and brotherly interaction.

Greek Two-Dimensional Art

Absence of Paintings and Alternative Sources

• Most Greek paintings (frescoes, encaustic wax paintings on plastered walls) have not survived.
• Our understanding comes predominantly from pottery paintings and mosaics.

Illusion of Depth and Three-Dimensionality

• Greek artists consistently sought to represent a three-dimensional world on a two-dimensional surface, even in early periods.
• Pottery Paintings (Archaic Period): Demonstrated early attempts at depth by showing overlapping body parts (e.g., a larger, overlapping buttocks indicating it's in front, suggesting a twisted hip).
• Pebble Mosaics:
  • Created by arranging natural pebbles of different sizes and colors.
  • Used darker pebbles to emphasize outlines and muscle definitions, creating a sense of volume and recessed/protruding forms.
  • This technique effectively depicted three-dimensional figures in a three-dimensional space.
• Tessera Mosaics (Roman Copies of Greek Paintings):
  • Later, Roman mosaic techniques (using small, cubical pieces of glass or stone called tesserae) allowed for greater detail and smoother lines, similar to pixels in modern digital imagery.
  • These Roman copies of Greek paintings provide insight into lost Greek painting techniques that created the illusion of depth:
    • Shadings: Gradual changes in tone or color to suggest volume, roundness, and form (e.g., the roundness of a horse's buttocks). The presence of shadows indicates physical beings in a real, illuminated space.
    • Overlapping: Objects that partially cover others suggest foreground and background, clearly indicating depth.
    • Scale: Closer objects are depicted as larger, and farther objects as smaller, mirroring human perception (e.g., a fist held close appears larger than distant trees).
    • Foreshortening: A technique where parts of an object are shortened to create the illusion that they are receding into space or coming forward (e.g., a horse depicted running towards the viewer appears compressed along its length).
• Significance: This emphasis on depicting a three-dimensional physical world underscores the Greek focus on human experience and actions within that world, rather than abstract or purely divine realms.

Hellenistic Period Art & Architecture

Historical Context

• Follows the conquests of Alexander the Great, who defeated Persia and expanded Greek influence across a vast empire (from modern-day Iran to Egypt and Greek city-states).
• After Alexander's death without an heir, his generals divided the empire (e.g., the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt). This led to a larger, empire-like Greece.

Artistic Characteristics: Emotion and Drama

• Hellenistic art retained humanism and idealism but moved beyond pure rationalism to incorporate greater dynamism and human emotion.
• Figures were no longer stoic and graceful but displayed intense situations through body gestures and facial expressions.
• Example: Laocoön and His Sons:
  • Depicts the Trojan priest Laocoön and his sons being killed by giant snakes sent by gods (who supported the Greeks) to prevent him from revealing the Trojan Horse's true nature.
  • The sculpture dramatically portrays intense agony, struggle, and suffering through twisted bodies, strained muscles, and anguished facial expressions.
  • It engages the viewer with its dynamic composition and powerful emotional content.
• Example: Winged Victory of Samothrace (Nike of Samothrace):
  • Depicts Nike (the winged goddess of victory) landing on the prow of a warship.
  • The sculpture is highly dynamic: her drapery clings to her body and flares dramatically as if buffeted by wind, suggesting motion and an active environment.
  • Originally installed with water, it created an immersive experience for viewers, allowing them to indirectly feel the moment of victory and the surrounding environment.
• Example: Aphrodite of Melos (Venus de Milo):
  • A Hellenistic female nude that presents a more erotic sensibility compared to earlier nudes like Aphrodite of Knidos.
  • Her lower body is partially covered, creating a sense of anticipation and suggesting a pending, more revealing movement. This plays on the viewer's imagination rather than direct display.
  • Her gaze is less modest, conveying a sense of divine confidence rather than embarrassment. This reflects a shift towards underlining sexuality in depictions of female beauty.

Hellenistic Architecture: Increased Scale

• With the expanded empire, Hellenistic buildings generally became larger in scale.
• Example: Altar of Zeus at Pergamon:
  • A monumental altar (not a temple) with grand staircases.
  • Its friezes depicted dramatic battle scenes of gods (Olympian gods fighting gigantomachy), reinforcing the Hellenistic emphasis on dynamism and emotion.

Greek Temple Architecture (Orders)

Purpose and Basic Plan

• Greek temples were primarily buildings for gods, not congregational spaces for worshipers.
• They housed giant cult statues (e.g., Athena Promachos in the Parthenon, covered in gold and visible from a distance).
• The basic plan typically included a main cella (naos) for the cult statue, sometimes a smaller room for offerings (opisthodomos), and a surrounding colonnade (peristyle).

Architectural Orders: Doric and Ionic

• Two principal orders dictated the style and proportions of columns and entablature:
  • Doric Order:
    • Columns: Lack a base; the shaft sits directly on the stylobate. Columns are generally thicker/heavier.
    • Capital: Simple, cushion-like.
    • Frieze: Divided into triglyphs (vertical grooved panels) and metopes (rectangular panels, often sculpted with narrative scenes).
    • Example: The Temple of Hera I.
  • Ionic Order:
    • Columns: Have an elaborate base.
    • Capital: More decorative, featuring volutes (scroll-like ornaments).
    • Frieze: A continuous, uninterrupted band for relief sculptures.
    • Example: The Temple of Athena Nike.

Evolution of Pediment Decoration

• The pediment (the triangular space under the roof at the gable ends) was a key area for sculpture.
• Early Pediments:
  • Figures were often scaled arbitrarily to fit the triangular shape, with larger figures in the center and smaller/reclining figures at the edges.
  • Scale relationships between figures were not a primary concern.
  • Example: Some early pediments featured Medusa in the center, flanked by large animals like lions.
• Later Pediments (e.g., Parthenon):
  • Artists maintained consistent scales for all figures, regardless of their position.
  • Figures were posed in diverse ways (standing, sitting, reclining, emerging from the ground) to fit the diminishing space harmoniously, prioritizing realistic human proportions and relationships.

Notable Acropolis Buildings

• Propylaea: The monumental gateway to the Acropolis, rebuilt after Persian attacks using funds from the Delian League (later controlled by Athens).
• Erechtheion:
  • An Ionic temple located across from the Parthenon.
  • Features the famous Caryatids: columns in the form of draped female figures that support the roof.
  • These Caryatids demonstrate the obsession with symmetrical balance: the three figures on the left bend their left legs (shifting weight to the left hip), while the three on the right bend their right legs (shifting weight to the right hip).

Greek Theater Architecture

Design and Purpose

• Shape: Typically greater than a half-circle when viewed from above, with tiered seating.
• Layout: Features radial aisles and seating rows, similar to modern stadiums but not fully enclosed.
• Early Purpose: Originally used for religious purposes and rituals.
• Later Purpose: Evolved to host drama and comedy performances.

Acoustics and Construction

• Natural Acoustics: Despite lacking microphones, Greek theaters boasted excellent acoustics.
  • The bowl-like, sloping shape of the seating area acted as a natural amplifier, ensuring sound reached all audience members effectively.
• Location: Due to engineering challenges in building tall structures, Greek theaters were typically constructed against hillsides. This utilized the natural topography to create the necessary slope for seating and acoustics without requiring complex vertical construction.
  • Example: The Theater of Epidaurus is renowned for its exceptional acoustic properties.

Reminders

• The instructor mentioned explaining the Roman adaptation of Greek architecture (specifically the Capital) later, so a reminder is needed. (Self-correction: The transcript doesn't specify 'Capital,' but implies Roman adaptations of Greek architecture after the Hellenistic period, often including the Corinthian Order and larger scale features. I'll note to remind the instructor to explain further developments in Roman architecture).