Untitled Flashcards Set

Study Guide #4

Manipulating mental representations

• Representations can be direct (images, visual aids) or symbolic (words, numbers).

• Effective manipulation of representations can lead to better problem solving and reasoning in various scenarios.

Types of representations

• Analogical Representations: Representations that maintain a similarity to the original object (e.g., images)

• Symbolic Representations: Abstract representations using symbols like words or numbers to convey meaning.

  • Example: Language as a powerful tool for symbolic representation that separates humans from other species.

  • Such as the word tree

Mental rotation lab experiences 2D; transformational equivalence principle

• The mental rotation lab explores how people mentally manipulate objects in space, specifically focusing on their ability to rotate two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) images in their minds.

• This cognitive skill is linked to spatial intelligence and is often tested using reaction time and accuracy in recognizing rotated objects.
  2D Mental Rotation Experiments

  • Participants are shown two 2D images of an object, with one rotated.

  • Task: Determine whether the images are the same or mirror images.

  • Key Finding:

    • Reaction time increases as the angle of rotation increases.

    • Larger rotations take longer to process mentally, suggesting a gradual transformation process.
      Transformational Equivalence Principle

      • Definition: Mental transformations (such as rotation) follow the same rules as physical transformations.

      • Key Evidence:

        • The time required to mentally rotate an object is proportional to the degree of rotation, just like in real-world physics.

      • Implication: When we imagine an object rotating, our brain processes it similarly to how we would physically rotate it.

Concepts formation - Models of concept formation: Defining attributes model, Prototype model and Exemplar model.

• Defining attributes model: This model emphasizes the specific features that categorize an object or concept, outlining the essential characteristics that must be present for identification. (e.g., Triangle

  • Must have three sides, three angles, and be closed.

  • A shape with four sides? ❌ Not a triangle.

  • A shape with three straight sides? ✅ Triangle.

• Limitations: Some concepts lack strict defining features (e.g., "game").

• Prototype model: Formation of a representative average; best example of a category (e.g., a golden retriever may be viewed as the prototypical dog)

• Exemplar model: Retaining individual examples of instances in a category that come from specific experiences, useful for expert knowledge

  • e.g., You recognize a dog because you've seen many different dogs---When you see a new animal, you compare it to your stored examples of dogs to decide if it belongs in the "dog" category.

Organization of concepts- hierarchical models, categorization.

• Categorization involves organizing knowledge hierarchically:

  • Hierarchical structures allow us to sort concepts efficiently by breaking them down into broader categories and subcategories, facilitating better retrieval of information and enhancing our understanding of relationships between different concepts.

  • Example of hierarchical structures;

    • Superordinate Level (Broad) → Animal

    • Basic Level (Commonly Used) → Dog

    • Subordinate Level (Specific) → Golden Retriever

• Individual experiences shape how concepts are perceived and categorized.

  • Example; the definition of a “cat” can vary based on prior knowledge and experience

• Categories are used to arrange related concepts or those with shared properties

Conceptual thinking:

• Concepts are mental frameworks that encapsulate knowledge about categories and objects (e.g., the concept of a “table” includes attributes such as shape, function, and appearance

• Conceptual Processing: how we organize, interpret, and use knowledge to understand and categorize the world around us.

  • How we form concepts

  • reason using concepts

  • make judgements and decisions based on these concepts

• Conceptual thinking: the ability to recognize patterns, connections, and underlying principles that link ideas or concepts. It involves abstract reasoning and problem-solving rather than just memorizing facts.

Algorithms vs. heuristics in thinking

• Algorithms: guidelines and rules that if followed correctly will yield the correct solution

  • Example: Using a GPS system, which provides turn-by-turn instructions, ensuring you arrive at your destination by following a clear sequence of actions.

  • Example: Baking a cake by following a recipe's instructions, such as mixing ingredients in a specific order, setting a certain temperature, and baking for a set amount of time.

• Heuristics: rules of thumb that simplify decision-making processes but can lead to errors

  • Availability Heuristic: Making decisions based on how easily examples come to mind, rather than full data

    • Example: After hearing about a few cases of cancer in people who smoked, an individual may assume that smoking is the primary cause of cancer for everyone, simply because those examples are readily available in their memory.

  • Representativeness Heuristic: Judging individuals by how well they match a certain stereotype of prototype.

    • Example: A person might assume that a tall individual is a basketball player because they fit the stereotype of what a basketball player looks like, overlooking the fact that many tall people may not play sports at all.

• Anchoring: Initial information or reference points can influence subsequent judgements and decisions.

  • Example: If a car is initially priced at $30,000 but is marked down to $25,000, a buyer may perceive this as a great deal, despite the fact that the car may still be overpriced compared to similar models.

• Framing: Presentation of information can significantly impact decision outcomes.

  • Example: People react differently to a scenario framed as a “discount” versus a “surcharge”; for instance, a $100 discount on a product may seem more appealing than a $100 surcharge on the same item, even though both ultimately result in the same final price.

Reasoning – effects of categorization, type of formation model & heuristics

• Categorization helps simplify reasoning but can also lead to biases and errors (e.g., stereotyping, overgeneralizing).

• Formation models (defining attribute, prototype, exemplar) guide how we group objects or ideas into categories, each with its own strengths and limitations.

• Heuristics are mental shortcuts that aid decision-making but can lead to inaccurate reasoning and judgments (e.g., availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic, anchoring, framing).
  
  

Speed accuracy tradeoff in problem solving and decision making.

• speed-accuracy tradeoff: the balance that individuals must strike between making quick decisions and solving problems efficiently, versus taking more time to ensure accuracy and correctness in their responses.

• Prototypical thinking leads to quicker and often biased judgements

  • Example: Quick identification of typical birds (robins) over atypical cases (ostriches)

• When making decisions quickly, people often rely on heuristics, intuition, or gut feelings. This can lead to faster decision-making, but it increases the risk of errors or bias.

• prioritizing accuracy involves taking the time to carefully analyze the situation, gather all relevant information, and consider various alternatives before reaching a conclusion.

Decision making – descriptive and normative models and expected utility theory

• Descriptive Model: Focus on how people actually make decisions, often swayed by heuristics and emotions.

• Normative Model: Ideal decision-making frameworks based on rationality and logical reasoning, which serve as benchmarks for evaluating the effectiveness of actual decision-making processes.

• Expected Utility Theory: Analyzes decision-making based on preference and perceived value versus actual outcomes
  
  

Deductive and inductive reasoning.

• Deductive Reasoning: Starts with a general statement or hypothesis and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion

  • Example: “If I study hard, then I will pass the test” This leads to the conclusion that a person who passed must have studied hard- potentially valid but not necessarily true, as there may be other factors influencing the outcome.

• Inductive Reasoning: Involves making generalizations based on specific observations

  • It relies on collecting data and experiences to draw broader conclusions and inferences

  • Example: A person may observe that all cars they encounter have wheels and might generalize that all cars have wheels.

Effects of heuristics on decisions

• Heuristics often lead to cognitive biases, which can affect the quality of decisions and judgements

• Confirmation bias: the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, while ignoring information that contradicts them.

  • A tendency to be more responsive to evidence that confirms one’s beliefs and less responsive to evidence that challenges one’s beliefs

• Overconfidence Bias: This is the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s knowledge or judgments.

Overview of effects of heuristics-

• Positive Effects:

  • Allow quick decision-making in uncertain or time-sensitive situations.

  • Help simplify complex decisions by focusing on essential aspects.

  • Can lead to "good enough" decisions in many everyday scenarios.

• Negative Effects:

  • Can lead to biased or flawed judgments.

  • Often ignore important data or statistical realities.

  • Can reinforce existing beliefs or stereotypes, leading to poor decisions.

Risk-benefit analysis; expected utility

• Both risk-benefit analysis and expected utility theory are frameworks used to make decisions that involve uncertainty. They are particularly useful in fields like economics, psychology, and decision-making in everyday life.

• A risk-benefit analysis involves evaluating the potential risks and benefits of a decision or action to determine whether it is worth taking. This type of analysis helps individuals or organizations assess whether the benefits of an action outweigh its potential risks.

• Expected Utility Theory offers a more mathematical approach to decision-making, considering both the value of outcomes and their likelihood.
  
  

Prospect theory - loss aversion

• Kahneman and Tversky came up with Prospect Theory ,a major theory in decision making

• Prospect Theory has main components:

  • A persons wealth affects their choices

  • a behavioral economic theory that describes how people make decisions under conditions of uncertainty.

  • Loss Aversion: Because losses feel much worse than gains feel good, a person will try to avoid situations that involve losses.

    • Potential l losses affect decision making more than potential gains do.

Paradox of choice

• The paradox relates to the overwhelming nature of too many options, which can hinder decision-making and lead to feelings of regret or dissatisfaction with the chosen option, even if it is a good choice.

• People can feel stressed or confused with too many choices leading to indecision

• Maximizers: Individuals who seek the best option; they often invest significant time into evaluating all choices, resulting in anxiety and being overwhelmed.

• Satisficers: Individuals who are satisfied with a decent option without seeking perfection.

Affective forecasting in decisions

• involves predicting how one will feel in the future about a decision made today.

• This can greatly influence whether someone adopts a maximizing or satisficing approach, as those who are more accurate in their forecasts tend to experience less regret and anxiety.
  
  

 Types of problems

• Familiar problems: Typically can be solved in a straightforward manner based on past experiences

• Novel problems: Require more extensive mental processing and analysis to identify and devise potential solutions.
  
  

Steps in problem solving – defining a problem, strategy in solving, restructuring

• Step 1: Define the problem clearly

• Step 2: Understand the complexity of the problem, recognizing multiple potential pathways to a solution and considering the implications of each option.

• Step 3: Break problems into smaller, more manageable sub-goals to make them less daunting and strategically navigate towards the ultimate goal while ensuring that progress can be measured and adjustments made as necessary.
  
  

 Insight, Bias, Fixation- functional fixedness and mental set

• Sudden insight often leads to breakthroughs in problem solving; may come from thinking differently or restructuring the problems

• Functional fixedness: The ability to see objects as having multiple uses, limiting creativity

• Mental set: A cognitive framework formed through past memories that can influence future problem-solving approaches
  
  

Strategies in problem solving: working backwards, finding analogies in experience, and restructuring e.g. overcoming fixation

• Working Backwards: Sometimes starting from the desired outcome and working backward can make it easier to reach a solution

  • Example: "John has a certain number of apples. He gave 3 apples to his friend and then had 7 apples left. How many apples did he start with?"

  • Start with the final condition: John has 7 apples after giving 3 apples away.

  • Work backwards: Add the 3 apples he gave away back to the 7 apples he has left.

    • 7 apples + 3 apples = 10 apples.

  • Conclusion: John started with 10 apples.

• Analogies: Finding analogous problems can provide insight or solutions that save time and effort

  • Example: A car engine is like the heart- Just as the heart pumps blood to the rest of the body, a car engine powers the vehicle and makes it move. Both are vital to the proper functioning of the system they support.

• Restructuring: Helps clarify the challenge/problem to make it more manageable

• Fixation: refers to the tendency to focus on a single solution or approach, even when it might not be the best one

  • Overcoming it includes using the problem solving strategies

Understand how artifacts in reasoning affect judgment, decision making and problem solving. Role of chance?

• Artifacts in reasoning: refer to cognitive distortions, biases, and external factors that influence the way we reason and make decisions. These artifacts can significantly affect judgment, decision-making, and problem-solving.

• They often lead to suboptimal outcomes because they cause individuals to deviate from rational thinking, making decisions that might seem reasonable in the moment but are flawed in the long run.

• Such as biases, heuristics (mental shortcuts), and emotional and social influences

• Role of Chance: Chance, or randomness, can play a significant role in judgment and decision-making, especially when outcomes are uncertain. People often misjudge the influence of chance, leading to errors in their reasoning.

• Impact of Artifacts such as fixation and ignoring randomness
  
  

Intelligence tests: psychometric tests -IQ, metal age, chronological age

• Psychometric Tests: Aptitude tests, personality tests, emotional intelligent tests, projective tests.

  • Where they may be used: educational setting, employement settings, career counseling, clinical settings, and personal development

  • Stanford-Binet test: appropriate for ages 2 to 85+

    • Fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory

  • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children/Adults (WISC-IV) appropriate for ages 6 to 16 and 11months(separate for adults)

    • verbal reasoning, fluid reasoning, working memory, and processing speed

• Mental age: an assessment of a child’s intellectual standing compared with that of the same-age peers; determined by comparing the childs test score with the average test scores of children of each chronological age.

• Chronological age: refers to the actual age of an individual, measured in years, months, and days, from the moment of birth to the current date. It is the age based on the passage of time, without taking into account any other factors such as development, maturity, or biological age.

Validity of IQ tests: cultural bias, verbal and nonverbal measures.

• The question of intelligence tests’ validity presists, such as cultural bias.

• All IQ tests have been criticized on the basis of cultural bias.

  • Example: content bias (western holidays), language bias (the test not being first language of an individual), and socioeconomic bias (a question involving knowledge of high-culture elements might favor individuals from wealthier backgrounds with exposure to those subjects.)

• Verbal Measures: typically assess language comprehension, vocabulary knowledge, and the ability to reason with verbal information. Examples include tasks like:

  • Vocabulary questions (e.g., defining words)

  • Analogies (e.g., "Book is to reading as fork is to…")

  • Impact on Validity: The greater reliance on verbal reasoning in some IQ tests may disproportionately disadvantage individuals from non-native language backgrounds, affecting the overall validity of the test in a multicultural setting.

• Nonverbal measures: assess cognitive abilities that do not require language skills. These tests often involve tasks like:

  • Pattern recognition

  • Puzzle solving

  • Spatial reasoning tasks

  • Impact on Validity: They can be influenced by culture, especially in how people recognize or interpret visual patterns, as cultural experiences can shape how we see shapes or designs.

Intelligence, Gardner’s multiple intelligences

• Gardner: Multiple components or “multiple intelligences”

  • The idea that there are different types of intelligence that are independent of one another

  • That there is 8 distinct intelligences

  • Proposed intelligences: musical, bodily-kinesthetic, linquistic, mathematical/logical, spatial, intrapersonal, and interpersonal (social understanding) intelligence.

General intelligence, g

• General Intelligence: the idea that one general factor underlies all mental abilities (measured by every task on an intelligence test) - Spearman

• Most psychologists agree that some form of g exists, they also recognize that intelligence comes in many forms

• General intelligence involves multiple components
  
  

Fluid and crystallized intelligences.

• Fluid Intelligence: involved when people solve novel problems

  • the idea that information processing underlies all novel or complex circumstances such as reasoning

  • tested in non-verbal culture-free tests

  • able to reason and think quickly (peaks in young adulthood, goes down with age)

• Crystallized Intelligence: Accumulated knowledge retrieved from memory; experience based knowledge

  • An older individual may do better with this than an young adult)

  • Ex: vocab, number line

Analytical, creative and practical intelligences (Sternberg)

• Analytical: This type of intelligence involves the ability to analyze, evaluate, and solve problems using logic and reasoning. It is the kind of intelligence most commonly measured by traditional IQ tests.

• Creative: involves the ability to think creatively, generate novel ideas, and deal with new or unfamiliar situations. It includes the capacity to think "outside the box" and approach problems in innovative ways.

• Practical: involves the ability to adapt to everyday life, make decisions based on real-world situations, and apply knowledge to solve problems in a practical, hands-on way. It’s often referred to as "street smarts."
  
  

Emotional and social intelligences.

• Emotional Intelligence: The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions

• Social Intelligence: The know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully
  
  

Intelligence associated with cognitive performance - Speed of mental processing Role of working memory and attention.

• Speed of Mental Processing: The speed at which an individual can process information and perform cognitive tasks is a critical aspect of intelligence. Faster processing speed often correlates with better performance on tasks requiring reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

  • Role in Cognitive Performance:

    • Faster Processing: Individuals who can process information quickly tend to perform better on intelligence tests

    • Example: Someone with faster cognitive processing might solve a math problem or answer a quiz question more quickly than someone with slower processing speed.

• Working Memory: the ability to hold and manipulate information in your mind over short periods while performing tasks. It is essential for tasks like reasoning, decision-making, and learning new information.

  • Role in Cognitive Performance:

    • Correlated with Intelligence: Research has shown that working memory capacity is strongly linked to intelligence. People with a higher working memory capacity are generally better at solving problems, making decisions, and learning new concepts.

    • Example: When reading a paragraph and trying to understand the content, working memory helps you hold onto key details (like names or dates) while you process the meaning of the entire passage.

• Attention: the cognitive process of focusing mental resources on a particular task, while ignoring distractions. It is critical for effectively processing and utilizing information.

  • Role in Cognitive Performance:

    • Sustained, selective, and divided attention

    • Example: A person who can focus on a lecture while filtering out distractions (like background noise) is better able to retain and process information than someone who struggles with maintaining focus.

Frontal and cingulate cortices in the brain are related to general intelligence

• The frontal and cingulate cortices play a crucial role in general intelligence (g factor) by supporting cognitive functions like problem-solving, decision-making, attention, and working memory.

• Frontal cortices: Responsible for reasoning, planning, and abstract thinking—core aspects of intelligence. It helps in holding and manipulating information, which is essential for problem-solving and learning, and supports the ability to adapt to new information and switch between tasks, which is a key component of fluid intelligence.

• Cingulate cortices(Anterior Cingulate Cortex - ACC): helps in identifying errors and adjusting behavior accordingly, which is crucial for learning and problem-solving. It helps focus on relevant information while ignoring distractions, improves efficiency in complex thinking tasks, and regulates emotions.

Intelligence has multiple determinants– biological factors, environmental factors. Nature nurture interactions – twin and adoption studies

• Intelligence is influenced by both biological (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors, and their interaction plays a crucial role in cognitive development.

• Twin and adoption studies suggest that genetics accounts for 50-80% of intelligence variability.

• Monozygotic (identical) twins raised apart still show high IQ correlations (~0.75), indicating a strong genetic component.

• Dizygotic (fraternal) twins have lower correlations (~0.40), showing that shared genetics matter.

• Higher intelligence is linked to efficient neural processing in the prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, and parietal regions.

• Epigenetics shows that gene expression can be influenced by the environment.

Group differences for intelligence/abilities

• The Flynn Effect: Over time, IQ scores have risen across all racial groups, showing the influence of education and environment.

• Cultural Bias in Testing: Many IQ tests are designed based on Western knowledge and may not fairly assess intelligence across cultures.

• Impact of Discrimination & Stereotype Threat: Fear of confirming negative stereotypes can lower test performance among minority groups.

Socioeconomic status as a factor

• Higher SES is linked to better educational resources, healthcare, and nutrition, all of which enhance cognitive abilities.

• Low SES may lead to chronic stress, which impairs working memory and executive functioning.

Cognitive factors in performance: Stereotype threat

• Stereotype threat: the psychological phenomenon where individuals feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group, which can negatively impact their performance on tasks. This often occurs in academic or performance-based settings.

• Example: If a woman is reminded of the stereotype that "women are bad at math" before taking a math test, she may experience anxiety and underperform compared to her actual ability. Similarly, if a minority student is reminded of negative stereotypes about academic performance, it can increase stress and reduce cognitive resources, leading to worse outcomes.

Creativity

• Creativity: the ability to generate new, original, and valuable ideas or solutions. It involves divergent thinking (thinking outside the box) and convergent thinking (finding the best solution)

• Creativity and intelligence are related but distinct.

• Threshold Theory: High intelligence is necessary for creativity, but beyond a certain IQ (around 120), higher intelligence does not guarantee greater creativity.

Unconscious processing and its effect on thinking/cognition

• The cognitive unconscious is the broad set of mental activities of which we are completely unaware that make cognition possible.

• Unconscious processing refers to cognitive activities that occur outside of conscious awareness. These processes influence thoughts, decisions, problem-solving, and behaviors without deliberate effort or awareness.

• The brain can process vast amounts of information simultaneously without overloading conscious thought.

• Example: You automatically read words on a sign without consciously deciding to do so.

• Many judgments are made unconsciously based on past experiences and heuristics (mental shortcuts).

• Example: Quickly recognizing a dangerous situation without analyzing every detail.

Evidence for unconscious processing

• Patients who have suffered brain damage provide evidence for unconscious processing

• . – Some patients with amnesia have impaired explicit memory but preserved implicit memory.

•  – HM improved at mirror tracing but didn’t know why!

•  – The split brain

•  – Blindsight

•  – Neglect 

Effects on reasoning, judgments, and decisions as discussed in class.

• Unconscious reasoning example- • “This name seems familiar, so it must be someone famous.” • “The face seems familiar, so it must be the person who robbed me.”

• Implicit effects of advertising in choices • Associative: “We’re the Pepsi generation…” • Dissociative: “It’s not your father’s car.”

• the cognitive unconscious can influence these thoughts. 

• For example, framing effects on decision-making are largely unconscious, even if one is fully aware of the options that one is considering.

Role of Education and training

• Education and training play a crucial role in shaping an individual's knowledge, skills, and abilities, enabling them to thrive in various professional and personal contexts such as careers, education, personal growth, and problem-solving

Metacognition: how/why thinking about thinking matters.

• Metacognition is the ability to think about one’s own thinking. It involves being aware of and controlling cognitive processes such as learning, reasoning, and problem-solving.

• It improves learning and academic performance, enhances problem-solving skills, boosts critical thinking and decision making, Supports Self-Regulation and Emotional Intelligence, and Helps Overcome Cognitive Biasesby allowing individuals to reflect on their thought processes, recognize their strengths and weaknesses, and adapt strategies accordingly.