1. Emotional response are different from those in real life 

   1. Observer effect/ Hawthorne effect: emotions in real life are experienced in a more dynamic and multifaceted way 

      1. Participants in lab studies may be aware that they are being observed, leading to altered behavior or self-consciousness 

2. Trace decay theory: memories fade as a function of time 

   1. Particular enhanced in older participants due to association w/ increased age and decreased ability to recall information 

      1. Similar to transience or forgetting 

3. Schacter-singer theory: explains that emotion results from interaction between two factors: physiological arousal and condition → physiological arousal is cognitively interpreted within the context of each situation → ultimately produces emotional experience 

   1. Two factor schacter 

4. James-lange (hot name so you are aroused): states that emotion is equivalent to the range of physiological arousal caused by external events → remember this by how long it takes to get an emotional response when it must be processed sequentially 

   1. 

5. Validity: related to accuracy of the a study 

   1. Mother’s IQ is not affected by race 

6. Jean piagent stages 

   1. Sensorimotor stage: 0-2

      1. Coordinator of sensory input and motor responses 

         1. Development of object permanence 

      2. Where autism manifests 

   2. Pre-operational stage: 2-7 

      1. Ability to use language and engage in pretend play 

      2. Marked by irreversibility, centration, egocentrism 

   3. Concrete operational: 7-11 

      1. Apply mental operations and master concept of conservation 

   4. Formal operational: 12+ 

      1. Children learn about abstract concepts and principles 

7. Polycistronic: describes messenger RNA 

8. Polyphenic: refers to a trait which multiple, discrete phenotypes can arise from a single genotype as a result of differing environmental conditions 

9. Polygenic

10. Polyploidy 

11. EEGs → electrical activity can be up or down 

12. Intelligence 

    1. Galton’s theory of hereditary genius: intelligence is hereditary can be passed down to offspring 

    2. Binet’s theory of mental age: uses a single number, the intelligence quotient (IQ) to represent an individual’s intelligence 

    3. Spearman theory of general intelligence: focuses on a general factor (g factor) to predict success on overall performance regarding mental ability tests 

    4. Thorndike’s theory of intelligence: 3 areas of intelligence 

       1. Abstract: associated with language and symbolic thinking 

       2. Mechanical: ability to control bodily movements 

       3. Social: ability to communicate and understand others 

       4. *useful for comparing IQ in children w/ and without autism 

13. Memory 

    1. Sensory memory 

       1. visual/ iconic: <1 second 

       2. Echoic (Auditory): 2-3 seconds 

       3. Short terming/ working memory: 7 +/- 2 items <1 min (Rehearsal) 

       4. Long term memory: encoding short term memory and then retrieving it 

          1. Theoretically infinite Declarative: explicit/ conscious 

             1. Episodic: personal history, events, experiences 

             2. Semantic: general knowledge about the world 

          2. Nondeclarative: implicit 

             1. Priming: proper stimuli influencing responses to subsequent stimuli 

             2. Procedural: performance of cognitive and motor tasks 

             3. Associative memory: emotional memory; classical and operant condition 

             4. Nonassociative memory: sensitization and habituation 

14. Electrical conductivity of the skin: is often measured to assess an individual’s level of arousal or sympathetic activity 

15. Attitude: describes our evaluation of a person, idea, object 

    1. Can typically be described as being positive or negative 

    2. Consist of 3 things: cognitive (thoughts), affective (feelings), behavioral (actions)

16. Attribution: describes how individuals perceive the causes of certain experiences and can be described as being either external or internal w/ external attributions describing the cause as being beyond the control of the individual and internal attributions describing the cause as being within the control of the individuals → not related to attitude 

17. Hidden curriculum: includes the norms, values, and beliefs that students are unintentionally taught through their attendance at school 

18. Bias in research 

    1. Self-serving bias: tendency for individuals to make conclusion that keep themselves in a positive light despite these conclusions contradicting reality 

       1. Can be attributing to positive outcomes to internal qualities and negative outcomes to external uncontrolled bias 

    2. Fundamental attribution error (correspondence bias): occurs when individuals overemphasize internal factors as explanations for the behavior of other people 

       1. Person drinking bc of personality issues rather than recent divorce 

    3. Actor- observer bias: describes the phenomenon in which an individual attributes their own negative actions to external circumstances while attributing other people’s negative behaviors to internal qualities 

19. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development: identify development theory that focuses on how children development morality 

    1. Preconventional

       1. Stage 1: obedience bc behavior is driven by avoiding punishment 

       2. Stage 2: behavior is driven by self-interest and rewards 

    2. Conventional 

       1. Stage 3: behavior is driven by social approval 

       2. Stage 4: behavior is driven by obeying authorities and conforming to social order 

    3. Post-conventional morality

       1. Stage 5: behavior is driven by a balance of social order and individual rights 

       2. Stage 6: behavior is driven by internal moral principles 

20. Diagnostics 

    1. PETs: functional image technique that uses radiotracers to visualize and measure changes in metabolic processes and other physiological activities → helps study the localized effects of naltrexone on the brain  

21. Moralistic trust

    1. Humanistic: emphasizes empathy and focuses on innate goodness in human behavior 

       1. Aggress w/ views of moralistic trust 

    2. behaviorist: exhibited behaviors are in response to a stimulus and its associated outcomes 

       1. There are no clearly defined stimuli 

    3. Psychoanalytic perspective: focuses on the important in the unconscious mind and how it dictates behavior based on past experiences 

    4. Social cog: focuses on cognitive processes such as thinking and judging 

       1. And how these contribute to learned behaviors when observing others 

22. Population 

    1. If dependency ratio increases (pop under 15 and over 65/ pop betw 15 and 65) → there is an increased burden on the working age population 

23. Just noticeable difference: when a particular stimulus can be detected by a person 50% of the time 

24. Optics 

    1. Convergence: binocular cue by which the extent to which the two eyes differently turn inward to view an object 

       1. Depth perception cue based on the inward movement of our eyes when we focus on the nearby objects 

25. Group theory 

    1. Conformity: acquiescence to the socially pressure behavioral standard of a group 

26. Weber: ideal bureaucracy

    1. Hierarchy of authority, promotion based on effort, specialization and technical qualification, formal rules and regulations 

27. Sleep

    1. Dyssomina: has trouble falling asleep at night 

28. Rxn formation 

    1. Person goes beyond denial and behaves the opposite way they thing and feel 

    2. *child bullies a romantic crush 

    3. When a student finds out they failed an important exam and immediately brushes it off as unimportant 

29. Fecundity = fertility 

30. Network dynamic: predicts that as the size of the group increases, the stability of the group increases but the intimacy of the group decreases 

31. Social loafing: describe the situation in which an individual puts less effort into achieving a certain goal when working in a group compared to working alone 

    1. This is influenced by the belief that their individual effort won’t be evaluated as harshly in a group setting and that their lack of effort will go unnoticed 

32. Functionalism: macrosociological perspective that views society as a connected structure between institutions such as schools, media, banks that meets the needs of society 

    1. Social institutions and organizations, have specific functions that contribute to the stability and survival of society 

33. Counterurbanization: when people move from city to suburbs 

    1. Urban decline: when cities physically are in bad condition 

34. Adrenaline: pupils dilate and blood vessels constrict 

35. Mead personality: sociological theory of symbolic interactionism

    1. Social rather than biological factors influence identity formation 

    2.  Experience of self (“I” and “me”) emerges through social interaction with others who play important and formative roles in one’s life 

    3. Preparatory (imitation): babies/ toddlers imitate others and begin to use symbols or language without meaning comprehension 

       1. At this stage children have no sense of self as separate from the world around them 

    4. Play: role-taking and understanding perspectives of others 

       1. The “I” component of the self has developed 

       2. Children begin to imagine how others perceive them, which is the beginning of the development of me 

    5. Game: school-age children become aware of their position/role in relation to others 

       1. Begin to see themselves from the perspective of the more abstract generalized other 

       2. Further develop the me to incorporate the values/ rules of society in which they live 

       3. 

36. Auditory 

    1. Place theory: explains the perception of sound pitch (how high or low a tone is) 

       1. Inside the cochlea, specific sound wavelengths generate basilar membrane vibrations at specific loci 

       2. Each locus (place) corresponds to a slightly different frequency. Hair cells located at the base of the basilar membrane are activated by high frequency sounds, and hair cells located at the apex of the basilar membrane are activated by low frequency sounds 

37. Bystander effect: individual is less likely to receive help as the number of onlookers are present 

    1. This is attributed to a diffusion of responsibility 

38. Personality 

Looking glass self: our interpretation of how we are perceived by others impacts our self-concept (beliefs about ourselves)