PRELIM NOTES MODERN HISTORY FULL

ROMANOVS

CONTEXT

THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN 1900

o   The Russian Empire was both European and Asian.

o   Covered one sixth of the Earth’s surface.

o   Covered a distance of 8000kms and an area of 20000 square kms, crossing 11 time zones.

o   The terrain was extremely varied, and the overall area was unbelievably vast.

o   Enormous geographical diversity.

o   In the aftermath of the 1905 revolution, little tolerance was given to national groups who were non-Russian.

o   A strict policy of ‘russification’ was inflicted; all national groups were forced to learn and operate in Russian.

o   The fear of invasion plagued Russia’s history and the decisions made during it.

THE AUTOCRATIC REGIME

o   Most European countries had been autocratic at one point in their history, but Russia was not evolving into another form of government.

o   Autocracy means that one figure (the Tsar) has complete control over every aspect of their empire and cannot be opposed by anyone.

o   It was believed that the Tsar ruled by ‘divine right’, and to oppose the Tsar was to oppose God.

o   Russian society at the time was divided into five classes:

§  Ruling Class

§  Gentry Class

§  Bourgeoisie

§  Proletariat

§  Peasantry

RELATIONSHIP WITH FOREIGN POWERS

o   Russia’s continuous concern with the European balance of power and its effect on security had an impact on Russia’s relationship with foreign powers.

o   Russia was a major imperial power.

o   Russia’s major concern was its efforts to gain a warm seaport in the Near East.

o   Austria was Russia’s principal rival in the Balkans region.

o   Relations with Japan were poor following the Russo-Japanese war.

o   Though France was a democratic republic, relations between the two powers were close.

o   Relations with Britain had improved greatly.

o   US-Russian relations were not as close as the US disagreed with the Tsar’s autocracy.

o   Italy did not figure much in Russia’s foreign concerns.

o   Relations with Germany steadily worsened before 1914.

THE ROMANOVS

o   Romanov Tsars ruled Russia from 1613 to 1917.

o   By the late 19th century and early 20th centuries, the rule of the Romanovs had become corrupt and inefficient – Russia’s system of government had outlived its time.

o   In 1892 Tsar Alexander III died suddenly, his son succeeded him (Nicholas II).

o   I am not prepared to be a Tsar. I never wanted to be one. I know nothing of the business of ruling” – Tsar Nicholas II.

AUTOCRACY

NICHOLAS THE AUTOCRAT

o   Was a conservative leader with few skills needed to rule.

o   Believed it was his right to have unlimited control.

o   Supported anti-Semitism

o   Was pro-military in outlook.

o   Politically naïve – accepted only the advice he wanted to hear rather than what was politically sound and achievable.

o   Expected unquestioning obedience from his subjects.

o   The Church supported the use of repression to stamp out ‘human weakness’ that could undermine Russia’s power.

o   The Government imposed strict censorship of the press.

o   He declared the law and could overrule any existing law.

o   He was free to appoint and dismiss his advisors without giving reasons.

o   Government officials put his decisions into practice and collected taxes for him.

o   The only genuine limit to the Tsar’s power and influence was the sheer vastness of the Empire and the scale of corruption and incompetence on the part of his ministers and official.

OPPOSITION

REVOLUTIONARY PARTIES

o   BOLSHEVIKS

§  Urban working class.

§  Alliance between working class and peasants.

§  Rapid overthrow of the Tsar and middle class to attain socialism.

o   MENSHEVIKS

§  Cooperation with the middle class to overthrow the Tsar followed by a steady progress to socialism.

o   SOCIALIST REVOLUTIONARIES

§  Land reform to benefit the peasants.

o   CADETS

§  A constitutional monarchy, like the English model.

o   OCTOBRISTS

§  Supporter of the 1905 October Manifesto.

§  A Duma, but with the Tsar retaining most power.

o   Vast majority of the population was not represented because the people in power were generally those of elite social class.

o   New ideas such as liberalism and equality began to filter over the border from the progressive countries.

1905

SIGNIFICANCE

o   Revolutionaries played a minor part.

o   Tsardom emerged stronger rather than weaker.

o   Sparked by the disastrous and humiliating events of the Russo-Japanese War.

o   None of the revolutionary groups were genuinely ready for revolution.

o   The Tsar appeared to appease this in the October Manifesto, but these were expedients rather than reforms.

o   The Duma was not intended to be, nor did it become, a limitation on the Tsar’s autocratic power.

THE LESSON

o   Showed that as long as the Tsarist government kept its nerve and the army remained loyal, protests would not create a great challenge.

o   1905 had failed as a revolution because the protestors were disunited and inexperienced.

o   “Although with a few broken ribs, Tsarism had come out of the experience of 1905 alive and strong.”

BLOODY SUNDAY

o   22 January 1905

o   Organised by Fr George Gapon.

o   Tsar was absent as he was on holiday with his family.

o   92 deaths – several hundred wounded.

o   Called for:

§  Civil liberties e.g. freedom of speech.

§  Measures to alleviate poverty.

§  Better working conditions.

o   Reasons for the revolution:

§  Government’s own responsibility:

v  Repression

v  Taxation

v  Incompetent Leadership

v  Social Unrest

v  Economic Recession

v  Bad Harvest

o   Events of 1905-6

§  Bloody Sunday

§  Strikes in major cities

§  Union of unions

v  Seizure of land

v  Soviets formed

v  Mutinies

§  Return of Witte

§  October Manifesto

o   Government Recovery

§  Liberals Placated

§  Peasants Bought Off

§  Workers Crushed

§  Fundamental Laws

AFTERMATH

AFTER BLOODY SUNDAY

o   Fr Gapon goes into hiding and is subsequently executed.

o   Grand Duke Sergei (Nicholas’ uncle) killed by a bomb thrown by a socialist revolutionary.

o   National Peasants Union is formed.

o   January 1905: half a million workers on strike.

o   Union of Unions is formed.

o   August 1905: Nicholas promises the assembly of a Duma.

OCTOBER MANIFESTO

o   For the first time it promised the people of Russia a series of basic rights:

§  Freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment without a trial.

§  Freedom of conscience.

§  Freedom of speech.

§  Freedom of association.

o   By 1906, the government was gradually reasserting its control over the country.

§  The imperial bureaucracy was back in control.

§  The alliance between higher + lower classes began to break down once the October Manifesto was announced.

§  The arbitrary power of the police and Okhrana remained unchecked.

WWI

BACKGROUND

o   Declared between Russia and Germany August 1914.

o   Seemed that WWI would save Romanov rule.

o   Urban discontent vanished at this time; no strikes of any kind in August 1914.

o   Tsar blessed troops and volunteers hastened to join.

REALITY OF WAR

o   Battle of Tannenberg (August 1914) – Germans inflicted heavy defeat on the Russians.

o   Another heavy defeat on Russians at Masurian Lakes (September 1914)

o   Germans had an advance on Russia.

o   Optimistic mood changed into one of increasing disillusionment.

o   Russia was inadequately prepared for war.

o   War minister had severely underestimated the needs of the army.

o   Factories couldn’t produce enough ammunition.

THE FRONT LINES

o   Army commanders forced to plan manoeuvres using maps 18 years out of date.

o   Fighting barefoot.

o   1 in 3 soldiers had a rifle.

o   3 – 5 shells per day.

o   Wounded left unattended without adequate clothes or food.

o   By the end of 1915 Russia had suffered 3.5 million casualties.

ECONOMIC IMPACT

o   Trade routes through the Baltic Sea and Black Sea were virtually cut off.

o   Exports fell by 86.7%

o   Budget expenditure rose from 3.5million roubles to 15.3million roubles.

o   Government tried to fill gap by borrowing from allies and printing more money, which resulted in inflation.

RURAL IMPACT

o   15million mobilised during war were from the countryside.

o   Fewer people and animals to work the soil.

o   Army took supplies.

o   Production of agricultural implements dropped by 15%.

o   Russian agriculture reached a state of crisis.

URBAN IMPACT

o   Low food; many cities suffering starvation.

o   Overloaded rail network.

o   Wages remained low.

o   268 strikes in January and February 1917.

POLITICAL IMPACT

o   August 1915: Tsar took the fateful decision of assuming supreme command of the army.

o   It was a disastrous decision on many levels.

o   Tsar had no knowledge of military tactics and strategy.

o   Tsar left Alexandra in charge of the government, who was fully under the influence of Rasputin.

o   1916: System of government was breaking down.

o   Empress was dismissing ministers in rapid succession.

o   Rasputin was assassinated in December 1916.

o   The fact that Rasputin could infiltrate the highest levels of government shows the weakness of Romanov rule.

POST WWI

1905-1917

o   October Manifesto failed to bring rapid or sufficient change to Russia

o   Nicholas released fundamental laws (April 1906) which reaffirmed his autocratic power

o   For a law to pass, it had to be approved by the Duma, the state council, and the final word came from the tsar

o   Pyotr Stolypin, Nicholas’ new chief minister, began to introduce reforms in 1906 aimed at increasing the productivity and livelihood of Russia’s peasants

o   Stolypin opened a Land Bank, which provided peasants opportunities to buy their own land. Some peasants became relatively wealthy with this

o   However, his reforms failed to dramatically change the life of Russia’s peasants (most could not afford land)

o   Stolypin also tried to destroy all revolutionary activity. Assassinations were common and radical groups were attempting to inspire new strikes in factories and the military

o   Stolypin was assassinated in 1911

THE DUMAS

o   First (1906): lasted two months before being shut down

o   Second (1907): included more representatives from radical parties and was shut down in four months

o   Third (1907 – 1912): didn’t include so many radicals, had very limited impact on addressing the key problems facing most citizens

o   Fourth (1913 – 1917): similar to the third, some members became leaders of the Provisional Government

TRANSFER OF POWER

o   Nicholas was called back to St Petersburg in the face of growing strikes and protests

o   He lost control of the military units in the capital when they refused to open fire on the striking workers

o   He lost control of the Duma when some of its members formed a Provisional Government prepared to overtake him

o   He abdicated on the 15th of March 1917

o   The Provisional Government introduced many changes aiming at addressing some of the problems Nicholas failed to solve

o   In October 1917, the Bolsheviks took over. The ordered the execution of the tsar and his family

ABDICATION

o   Tsar Nicholas Abdication Statement:

§  Today, I am addressing you for the last time, my dearly loved armies. I have abdicated for myself and for my son, and I am leaving the throne of the Emperors of Russia. Much blood has been shed, many efforts have been made, and the hour of victory is approaching when Russia and her Allies will crush, in the common effort, the last attempts of the enemy. The unprecedented war must be conducted to the final victory. Those who think of peace and wish it now are twice traitors to their country. Every honest soldier must think that way. I urge you to fulfil your duty and to valiantly defend your Russia. Obey the Provisional Government!

INDOCHINA

PRE-FRENCH INDOCHINA

o   Indochina had endured 1000years of Chinese rule, as well as a number of other foreign invaders.

o   Vast majority of population – illiterate

o   Develop oral traditions – major centre of Vietnamese culture and lifestyle

o   No real sense of nationalism under Chinese – regional identities.

FRENCH IMPERIALISM

INTRODUCTION

o   What we now call Vietnam was once owned by France.

o   From the late 1800’s to 1954, Vietnam was part of a French colony called French Indochina.

o   When the French first became interested in Indochina:

§  The French missionaries sought to convert the Vietnamese to Catholicism.

§  The merchants saw opportunities to enrich themselves by securing rice, coffee, tea and rubber.

§  The French government was also eager to establish a strategic presence in South East Asia.

o   In the 2nd half of the 20th Century, many people fought political and military battles to gain independence.

o   The people of Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam fought to gain independence from French rule and establish themselves as independent.

LAOS

o   French control from 1893.

o   Emperor continued day-to-day rule.

CAMBODIA

o   French control from 1863.

o   Emperor continued day-to-day rule.

TONKIN

o   French control from 1884.

o   Indirect French rule through Vietnamese emperor.

o   France had to approve all decisions.

o   Not considered a part of France so no French citizenship for Vietnamese.

o   Hanoi – an important centre of administration.

ANNAM

o   French control from 1884.

o   Indirect French rule through Vietnamese.

o   France had to approve all decisions.

o   Not considered a part of France so no French citizenship for Vietnamese.

COCHINCHINA

o   French control from 1882.

o   Direct rule from France through French governor.

o   Considered part of France so Vietnamese here could have French citizenship and representation in the French National Assembly.

o   Saigon – known as “the Paris of the Orient”.

MISSIONARIES

o   French wanted to gain control of Asia due to the abundance of natural resources and labour.

o   Treaty of Saigon post Gunboat Diplomacy

o   Economic

§  Reform Vietnam’s traditional agrarian system into money intensive plantations.

§  Villages required to meet quotas.

§  Exploitation of farmers.

§  Extensive taxation e.g. salt

§  Created monopolies in salt, alcohol, opium and rubber.

§  Economic exploitation

§  Complete disruption of Indochina’s economy for the benefit of the French and the detriment of the Indochinese population.

o   Political

§  Power change more toward the French.

§  Emperors lost their idea of ownership.

§  Divided Vietnam into 3 regions – further enforced regional identities.

§  Oppression – gendamerie

§  Bao Dai becomes a Francophile – helped implement France’s colonialist priority.

o   Social/Culture

§  Hierarchy and dominance.

§  Breakdown of the Xa

§  Violation of the autonomy of villages.

§  Construction of western hospitals, bridges etc.

§  Peasant mobility increased.

§  Buddhism to Catholicism.

§  Establish 200 Christendom’s (Christian communities).

§  Language changed (Quoc Ngu)

§  Gives Vietnamese people the ability to rise up against the French through propaganda and create change

o   The White Man’s Burden: French people changing society and the way the country runs à a burden put on the Vietnamese people.

o   French would kill villagers and take the land as their own.

o   Villagers suffered due to high taxes and hard labour.

o   In 1858, Vietnam remained one of the last Asian nations that had not fallen victim to European colonisation.

o   However, France gained control of Indochina from the late 1850’s onwards.

o   It was essential as part of a 19th century European nation to expand its territories, to gain large amounts of natural resources, labour and economic developments.

o   Vietnamese were forced to surrender control over their land and to provide the French with land privileges.

o   French actions and Vietnamese reactions represented nothing less than a major cultural clash of values.

o   For the Vietnamese, such as Minh Mang believed the Priests who arrived were treasonous, and the process is recognised as the White Man’s Burden.

o   For the Anglo/French, the belief stressed European superiority over Indigenous people, who were seen as inferior.

WWI

MILITARISM

WHAT IS MILITARISM?

o   Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests.

o   As one country increased its armies, so all the others feel obligated to increase their armed forces to keep the ‘balance of power’.

lead up to 1914

o   Militarism was a defining force in several European nations.

o   Governments and aristocracies were strongly influenced by their military personnel and considerations.

o   Generals and admirals often acted as de facto government ministers, advising political leaders, influencing domestic policy and demanding increases in defence spending.

o   Militarism also shaped public opinion, with the press hailing military leaders as heroes or national leaders.

o   Militarism created an environment where war was considered the best or only response to political and diplomatic problems.

GERMAN MILITARISM

o   The Prussian Army was reformed and modernised in the 1850’s by Field Marshal von Moltke.

o   Von Moltke’s implemented new strategies, improved training for its officers, introduced advanced weaponry and adopted more efficient means of command and communication.

o   Franco-Prussian War 1871 revealed the Prussian army as the most dangerous and effective military force in Europe.

o   This victory also secured German unification, allowing Prussian militarism and German nationalism to become closely intertwined.

BRITISH MILITARISM

o   British militarism, though more subdued than its German counterpart, was considered essential for maintaining the nations imperial and trade interests.

o   The Royal Navy, by far the world’s largest naval force, protected shipping, trade routes and colonial ports.

o   British land forces kept order and imposed imperial policies.

o   Two power standards.

EUROPEAN DEFENCE EXPENDITURE

o   Increase in defence spending:

§  GERMANY 73%

§  FRANCE 10%

§  BRITAIN 13%

o   Total defence expenditure (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Britain, France and Russia)

§  1870: $94 million pounds

§  1880: $130 million pounds

§  1890: $154 million pounds

§  1900: $268 million pounds

§  1910: $

§  1914: $398 million pounds

ARMY CONSCRIPTION

o   All the Continental European powers except Britain had adopted the conscription system since 1870.

o   From 1913 to July 1914, Germany increased her standing forces by 170,000 men.

o   France lengthened her period of military service from 2 to 3 years.

o   Russia lengthened her term of service from three and a half years.

o   Britain did not introduce conscription but had prepared her armed forces for both European expedition and for home defence.

THE ANGLO-GERMAN NAVAL RACE

o   Early 20th Century à Britain was Europe’s major naval power – a status that Germany was striving to attain.

o   In 1898, Germany set out to develop a navy twice the size of Britain’s.

o   In 1900, Kaiser Wilhelm began to build up the German navy (Tirpitz’s Navy Law), announcing that he wanted Germans to sail all over the world.

o   In 1906, Britain launched HMS Dreadnaught, considered to be the most powerful battleship afloat.

o   Germany began copying these designs

o   Germany and Britain clashed over the size of their navies – between 1909 and 1911 Germany built 9 Dreadnaughts while Britain completed 18 Dreadnaughts.

GERMANY’S ‘SCHLIEFFEN PLAN’

o   Based on the idea that Germany would eventually have to fight France and Russia but should avoid fighting both at once.

o   France would expect Germany to invade from the East so would not be prepared for an invasion from the North.

o   Germany would defeat France in the six weeks it would supposedly take for Russian troops to mobilise, then they would attack Russia.

ALLIANCES

DEFINITION

o   A union or association formed for mutual benefit, especially between countries or organisations.

ALLIANCES FORMED

o   Triple Entente

§  Great Britain

§  France

§  Russia

o   Triple Alliance

§  Germany

§  Austria-Hungary

§  Italy

IMPERIALISM

WHAT IS IMPERIALISM?

o   A policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonisation, use of military force or other means.

o   Historians accept that imperialism was one of the long terms causes for the outbreak of WWI.

IMPERIALISM PRE-1870

o   The British Empire was the world’s greatest power.

o   “The sun never set on the British empire.”

o   It covered about 25% of the Earth’s surface and controlled over 390million people.

o   France had the second largest empire, with most of their colonies in Africa and Indochina.

o   Austria-Hungary had established its empire through expansion within Europe, controlling 50million people from 11 different national groups.

o   Germany, as a relatively new nation, missed out on the opportunities to take control of land overseas.

o   The Ottoman Empire was shrinking considerably and would become known as “the sick man of Europe”.

SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA

o   The Scramble for Africa: was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory between the 1880’s and the start of WWI.

o   European nations saw Africa as ripe for the taking.

o   Some Europeans argued that by colonising Africa, they were also exporting civilisation to a continent which they regarded as evolutionary backward and underdeveloped.

o   It was a European responsibility to act as trustees of Africa until Africa was mature enough to govern itself.

o   However, commercial interest drove colonisation.

REASONS FOR THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA

o   Industrialisation à Europe wanted cheap labour and valuable resources such as palm oil, gold, diamonds and rubber.

o   Suez Canal à crucial for countries wanting to trade with India and China.

o   Power à the larger the colony, the more powerful the military.

o   Lack of Resistance à conquest was relatively easy for the European states.

o   Due to previous agreements not to sell modern weapons to Africans in potential colonial areas, Europe easily held the technological and armament advantage.

o   Britain à motivated by desire to increase its share of international markets, the creation of new investment opportunities, the protection of existing trade and preventing other potential imperialists from gaining benefits.

o   France à motivated by the desire to restore lost pride after its humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian War 1870-71

o   Germany à Kaiser Wilhelm II was motivated by nationalism, anxious to gain status for Germany as a world power and wanted Germany to have “a place in the African sun”.

IMPACT ON COLONISED PEOPLE

o   The view that Europeans were going into the “Dark Continent” to rise and civilise the savage natives was widely accepted.

o   Undermined existing religious, cultural and political structures that has once created a sense of unity among a colony’s indigenous peoples.

o   Increased the gap between the wealth and power of the ruling nation.

o   Displaced colonial peoples, forced them to work as cheap labour and pay taxes in support of the agendas of their colonial masters.

NATIONALISM

WHAT IS NATIONALISM?

o   Nationalism: An extreme form of patriotism marked by a feeling of superiority over other countries or advocacy of political independence for a particular country.

o   Jingoism: Extreme patriotism, especially in the form of aggressive or warlike foreign policy.

o   Pan Nationalism: The desire to unite all people of the same cultural and linguistic group, even if they are located within the national boundaries of another nation, this is a form of nationalism that seeks to change existing national boundaries.

EUROPEAN NATIONALISM

o   There were two kinds of nationalism in 19th century Europe:

§  the desire of subject peoples for independence.

v  It led to a series of national struggles for independence among the Balkan peoples.

v  Other powers got involved and caused much instability.

§  the desire of independent nations for dominance and prestige.

v  As the powers try to dominate each other in Europe, their rivalries may be regarded as one of the causes of the First World War.

INGREDIENTS FOR NATIONALISM

o   A Shared Culture

§  The attempt by one group of people to define the nation on the grounds of religion or social customs.

o   A Shared Language

§  Important in promoting a sense of nationalism à many minority languages were progressively eliminated.

o   The Notion of ‘Race’

§  Racial arguments asserted that each nation was a family, clan or tribe with a common biological descent, ethnic origin or race.

o   A Common Territory

§  Decline of traditional communities under the impact of industrialisation à attachment to native soil and the imaginary community of ‘the nation’ stepped in to fill this void.

FRENCH NATIONALISM

o   France had been the dominant power in Europe for centuries.

o   Napoleon I and Napoleon II had attempted to dominate Europe.

o   In 1871, Germany defeated France à she had to lose two provinces (Alsace and Lorraine) and needed to pay heavy indemnities.

o   From 1871 onwards, France’s greatest ambition was to recover Alsace and Lorraine from Germany.

o   She also wanted to prevent another defeat by Germany, to recover her national prestige by acquiring overseas colonies and to make diplomatic alliances with other important powers in Europe.

GERMAN NATIONALISM

o   The leaders of 1871 Germany relied on nationalism to consolidate and strengthen the new nation.

o   Nationalism also went hand in hand with German militarism: the state of the nation was both defined and reflected by the strength of its military forces.

o   Kaiser Wilhelm II was the personification of this new Germany.

§  Both the Kaiser and his new nation were young, nationalistic, obsessed with military power and imperial expansion, proud of Germany’s achievements but nervous about its future, envious of other powers and desperate for national success.

THE BALKANS

o   The growth of Slavic nationalist groups in the Balkans threatened the stability of the fragile Austro-Hungarian Empire.

o   Aggravated by Vienna’s annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, young Serbs joined radical nationalist groups.

o   These groups hoped to drive Austria-Hungary from the Balkans and establish a ‘Greater Serbia’, a unified state for all Slavic people.

THE JULY CRISIS

REASONS FOR THE STALEMATE

1.     Those involved were not prepared for a modern war – they thought it would be a short offensive war, over by Christmas.

2.     The war plans of Germany (Schlieffen) and France (Plan 17). The modification and failure of plans.

3.     Battle of the Marne

4.     The Race to the Sea – First Battle of Ypres

5.     The establishment of the Western Front (Christmas 1914)

EXPECTATIONS OF WAR

o   Fast – over by Christmas.

o   Offensive

o   Need for a ‘knockout blow’

§  This expectation was challenged by the reality of modern warfare.

o   Millions of men

o   Thousands of horses & trucks

o   Munitions

o   Food

o   Medical Supplies

§  Hard to sustain

o   Mobilisations: placing armed forces in a state of readiness – was vital because of sheer size of forces and supply needs.

WAR PLANS OF GERMANY AND FRANCE

o   GERMANY

§  Aimed to avoid war on 2 fronts, defeat France early, then turn to Russia.

§  Wanted to move troops fast through South Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg & North France on flat land with rail lines.

§  Result was a fast movement would capture the North France industrial areas & Paris a quick surrender à turn attention to Russia.

§  Modified plans à no troops through Netherlands to keep neutral for trade, move some troops to Eastern front against Russia, bottleneck through Belgium

§  Delay at Liege and Aachen

v  Belgium and Britain time to mobilise.

v  Belgium – resistance stronger than expected.

v  British fought German at MONS, they were defeated but they slowed the Germans down.

v  Gap between Von Kluck and Von Bulow à Swing east of Paris

v  German advance halted at Marne.

o   FRANCE

§  Aimed to recapture Alsace-Lorraine

§  Wanted to concentrate armies on Franco-German border

§  Britain was unaware of plan, Russia would have to mobilise fast and put pressure on Germany, left Franco-Belgian border undefended and relied on old

BATTLE OF THE MARNE

o   Delay of German troops à move east of Paris à exposes Von Klucks right flank and is attacked by French and Von Kluck retreats.

o   This creates a gap between Von Kluck and Von Bulow

o   British troops move into gap, new of allied reinforcements à German retreat to Marne River and dig in.

o   RESULTS:

§  North France lost to Germany

§  Moltke replaced by Falkenhayn

§  Still belief in rapid end to war

EASTERN FRONT

ORIGINS OF THE EASTERN FRONT

o   While Belgium was holding back the German army on the Western Front, the Russians were mobilising on the Eastern front.

o   It was not long before the Russian army moved into Austria-Hungary and Germany from the east.

o   German commanders had to pull forces from the Western front to stop the Russian’s advance.

THE EASTERN FRONT

o   The Eastern front stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south.

o   It included most of Eastern Europe and also stretched into Central Europe.

o   In area, it was much larger than the Western Front.

o   The spread-out nature of the Eastern Front mean that trenches were largely ineffective, and it was the mobility and training of the German troops that proved to be decisive.

BATTLE OF TANNENBERG: AUGUST 1914

o   The Germans were able to Russians and drive them back in the Battle of Tannenberg.

o   Although the Russian army was much larger, they were defeated by the Germans.

o   Out of Russia’s 250,000 troops, 78,000 killed and 90,000 prisoners of war.

o   The Allied Powers were shocked and devastated à the Battle of Tannenberg would be the only battle where Russia advanced into German territory.

o   It was also a sign that the German army would be a tough opponent.

END OF WAR ON THE EASTERN FRONT

o   By March 1918, German troops were within striking distance of the Russian capital.

o   The Bolsheviks concluded the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that withdrew Russia from the war and ended the war and ended the war on the Eastern Front.

THE NATURE OF TRENCH WARFARE

THE TRENCHES

o   Trenches seen as temporary as the front stabilised end of 1914 to early 1915.

o   Aimed to house men before big offensive that would achieve a knockout blow.

o   Eventually took on an air of permanency à strengthened.

o   German trenches used concrete and built to a depth up to 12 metres.

o   British trenches were never as solid à maintained belief in cult of the offensive.

o   As time wore on, trenches became more complex.

§  Compartments made for supplies of ammunition.

§  Dugouts for men to sleep.

§  German trenches had rooms going off main trenches.

§  Some officers’ trenches had electricity and wallpaper.

o   Back at home;

§  The general public were given an idealised view of the trenches.

§  Models were constructed in Hyde Park and members of the public were invited to share the experiences of the boys in France.

o   A complex system developed:

§  Both Allied and German trenches developed into a complex network that stretched back many kilometres from the front line.

§  The more complex, the more difficult to break through.

§  Front line trenches not a neat straight line, often zigzagged à added stability and made possible a double line of fire if enemy attacked.

§  Opposing trenches not same distance apart all along the front.

FEATURES OF THE TRENCHES

o   Front Line Trench: Where troops positions themselves for launching attack on the enemy or awaited an attack.

§  Supported by observation posts and machine gun nests.

o   Reserve Trenches: Further back where reinforcements would wait to be called up to front line.

o   Communication Trenches: Connected the trenches and stretched back even further to first-aid posts and supply depots.

o  No Man’s Land

§  Area between Allied and German front-line trenches is called no-man’s land.

§  Could be up to 8-10kms wide or narrow as 50metres.

§  Leaving trench and going ‘over the top’ into that area made one an easy target for enemy machine guns.

§  Full of deep craters and combination of mud, heavy rain and artillery bombardment made it a fearful quagmire à difficult to walk through let alone fight.

§  Often mined.

§  At night small groups were sent out to raid opposing trenches – at risk of sniper fire and flares would be sent up to target any men out there.

BASICS OF BATTLE

o   Commanders realised that to achieve any breakthrough would require an enormous effort.

o   Moving such a vast force required careful planning.

o   A location along the front would be selected for an attack – men, supplies & logistical support would be assembled, and this could take months.

o   Impossible to keep vast movements a secret à increasing use of reconnaissance aircraft ensured this.

o   If enemy suspected a big push was underway, they would prepare defences à impossible to achieve surprise.

o   Once forces assembled, spot chosen for attack was heavily bombarded by artillery.

o   Heavy guns would pound enemy’s front-line position.

o   Aim to soften up opposing front line and drive defenders out of their trenches.

§  E.g. the artillery bombardment on Germans before Somme lasted for an entire week.

o   Artillery barrages had the capacity to turn open land into a cratered moonscape and cities into rubble.

o   Once commanders satisfied that enemy trenches were cleared, a whistle was blown and attacking force moved across no-man’s land.

o   They would be met with a chorus of machine gun fire.

o   Always resulted in enormous casualties.

o   If they reached the other side, had to negotiate barbed wire defences.

o   If they got through, hand-to-hand fighting might ensue.

o   Attacks like these lasted for months.

KEY EXPERIENCES OF SOLDIERS

BATTLE OF VERDUN

o   French held the garrison of Verdun

§  Garrison: a body of troops stationed in a fortified place

o   Surrounded by 13 massive concrete forts

o   German General Erich Von Falkenhayn used artillery to inflict huge numbers to break the stalemate by forcing the French to defend Verdun.

§  ‘bleed the French Army to death’

§  Massive bombardment of French defences in February 1916 of 1400 heavy guns

o   French General Philippe Pétain was responsible in defending Verdun

§  Declared: “they shall not pass!”

§  Symbolic in the eyes of the French

o   Considered ‘brutal’

§  Germans fired twenty-three million shells at the French and used new deadly weapons.

§  Phosgene gas

§  Flamethrowers were used in large

§  There was several fierce hands to hand fighting in the underground passages.

o   ‘La Voie Sacrée’(The Sacred Way)

§  The only accessible road for the French in and out of Verdun to bring reinforcements

§  Saw 6000 vehicles a day, despite heavy German shelling and was never closed

§  Three-quarters of the French Army was brought in to defend Verdun

o   Germany called off their main attack in July 1916

o   French managed to recapture most of the land

o   Germans had failed to break the French resistance.

o   700 000 men killed, wounded or missing

o   10-month battle

o   Estimated 300 000 died

BATTLE OF THE SOMME

o   Defining symbol of the Great War

o   Considered the worst ever in the history of the British Army

o   57 000 casualties, including 20 000 killed

o   France aimed to break through German lines and break the stalemate on the Western Front

o   Allies: France, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and South Africa

o   Allies were preceded by a week-long bombardment of German trenches to destroy the German’s barbed wire and front-trench trenches

o   Germans were aware of impending attack

o   Prepared for the attack by digging underground chambers that allowed soldiers to shelter from the bombardment.

o   ‘Over the top’: the movement by troops when they climbed from their trenches to move forward into battle.

o   British were confident that the German occupation of trenches were cleared

o   Instead, they were hit by a barrage of machine-gun fire

o   ‘War of attrition’: a strategy to wear down the enemy with continuous actions to reduce their resources.

o   Became a war of attacks and counter-attacks

o   British front line advancing a mere 15 km at its furthest extent

o   Halted by British commanders in November 1916

o   Final casualties:

o   German: 500 000

o   Allies: 620 000

BATTLE OF PASSCHENDAELE

o   The British naval blockade continued to deprive Germany of raw materials, the British and French gained control in the air and Allied industrial production was up.

o   French commander-in-chief

§  Robert Nivelle

§  Attempted a breakthrough offensive

§  However, only succeeded by gaining less than 8 km at great cost.

§  Replaced by Philippe Pétain in May 1917

o   There were mutinies in some French units

§  Scholars suggest as a consequence of this, the French Army ceased to be a potent offensive force

o   The British Army had to carry the weight of the offensive

o   Soldiers from Britain, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa attempted to break through German lines in Belgium

o   Huge bombardment of four and a half million shells, combined with the worst rains seen in 30 years, turning the battlefield into a quagmire.

o   This battle was the ultimate example of the rationale for a war of attrition

o   Douglas Haig, Senior officer of the British Army

§  Argued that as long as the Germans lost more man than the British and French, the Allies would win in the end

IMPACTS ON THE HOME FRONT

INTRODUCTION

• During the first world war, communities left behind became more than spectators awaiting news of battles, they became participants.

• They joined a front in war known as the ‘home’ front, which became vital to the outcome of the conflict.

TOTAL WAR

o   Slight context for Britain -

§  Britain has been fighting wars for the duration of the Empire.

§  WW1 is the first-time conflict has come to Britain since 1066.

§  Nationalism – world’s biggest empire, biggest navy, best trained army at the time. (1914)

§  British National security has been challenged at Sea.

o   Impacts on Britain

§  Total war was not enforced until 1915 – the social structure was semi opposed with free press and a strong union movement.

§  Administrative roles are created out of the war – minister for munitions and minister for war production.

§  Military dependence on the home front to provide support such as food and logistical supplies.

§  Initially, the British had adopted a ‘business as usual’ policy – they thought the war would be over by Christmas.

§  Government introduced laws to provide authorities with the power to restrict leisure to increase and maintain industrial output and other war contributions. (Defence of the Realm Act – 1914 – Gov have powers to intervene in daily lives of civilians)

§  British manufacturing struggled – not prepared and reliant on raw materials, shortage of skilled labour, shell shortage.

§  Munitions of War Act (1915) – strikes were banned in industries vital to munitions production, labour disputes could be settled by abating volunteers, Minister of Munitions controlled wages and working conditions, workers bound to place of employment.

§  Rationing was introduced in 1918 as a precaution to ensure supplies to the front in the event the war carried on.

o   Impacts on Germany

§  Germany seemed the most prepared for the war –self-sufficient in food production, political groups supported the war.

§  Germany had planned total war from the beginning – prepared to make total use of resources.

§  Importance of women in the workforce grew.

§  Imported much of its industry – issues with access to raw material as the war went on.

§  The War Raw Materials Department (KRA) cooperated with the government + industry but struggled with the short supply of labour – casualties over time and increased conscription contributed to this, there simply weren’t enough workers – manpower crisis.

§  Labour was controlled by the national service law.

§  All men 17-45, later extended to all men, some women, juveniles, disabled servicemen and POW’s were conscripted into armed service or labour.

§  German supply ships were blockaded – impacts industrial production by cutting materials available through importation.

§  The German economy shrank from 1915 onwards.

§  Basic goods were in short supply by 1916.

§  Production decreased, food prices doubled, the cost of living doubled (inflation).

§  Civilian life is impacted as the army held all essential supplies for the infantry.

§  Half the food harvest is gone by late 1916.

§  Germany is struck by mass famine in the winter of 1917 – the government intervenes over produce allowances.

§  The famine and decrease in quality of life at home spreads suffering and tuberculosis among youths.

§  By late 1917, half daily calorie requirements are all that’s left.

§  Production levels reach critical lows with declining morale and riots start in early 1918 over harsher government policy.

§  The war effort is defeated, and Germany is on the brink of revolution by November 1918.

IMPACT OF WAR ON CIVILIANS:

• Civilians found that they had no choice about being involved in war.

• Destruction along the Western Front ensured that living became impossible.

• Many families fled, and communities were destroyed.

• More than 150,000 Belgian refugees sought shelter in Britain, returning home year later to a shattered landscape and trying to rebuild lives.

IMPACT OF WAR ON THE HOME FRONT:

• GERMAN HOME FRONT

  • Had a more profound impact on Germany.

  • Food shortages were severe and the German government's regulation of domestic labour, industry and agriculture was extensive.

• BRITISH HOME FRONT

  • Focused on ensuring the supply of all the munitions and products necessary to conduct war.

  • The government took extensive measures to ensure control of the Home Front.

  • E.g. The Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) banned civilians from a range of human activities and luxuries.

WOMEN AND THE MUNITION INDUSTRY

• In July 1914, 3.22million women were in the workforce.

• In January 1918, 4.8million.

• Major part of increase was seen in the munitions industry.

• 1914 - 212,000 females in munitions industry.

• 1918 - 950,000 females in munitions industry.

• July 1918, 80% all British munitions produced by munitionettes.

• Conditions → long hours, very dangerous

  • 200+ killed

  • Silvertown factory explosion - 69 dead.

  • Contracted TNT poisoning - canaries

• No shortage of women willing to work in munitions.

• Better pay than domestic service.

• Most women were young and married/single.

OUTSIDE THE MUNITIONS FACTORIES

• At first female contribution was voluntary work.

• Upper class women provided comforts for men.

• Nursing most acceptable form of work for married/single and middle class (at first female volunteers for nursing not accepted by government).

• Danger of food shortages → needed to increase production.

• Women worked on land → Women’s Land Army

• Other Jobs → blacksmiths, gravediggers, managers, ambulance drivers, clerks, tellers etc.

• Some areas off limits → train drivers, iron and steel workers.

WOMEN IN THE ARMED SERVICES

• WAAC - Women’s Army Corps

• WRAF - Women’s Royal Army Force

• WRNS - Women’s Royal Naval Service

• Non-combatant roles - freed up men for front

RECRUITMENT:

BACKGROUND

• Britain’s army was modestly sized compared to Germany → 20 divisions (approx. 200 00 men) vs 94 divisions.

• There was no conscription in Britain at the start of the war.

THE DETAILS

• Recruiting committees were established → e.g. The London Parliamentary Recruiting Committee

• A strong recruitment drive was launched with Lord Kitchener as the figurehead.

• Volunteers were encouraged to join up with friends from work or from a club or town - Pals Battalions

• 1.34 million volunteers by 1915 - 3 million by the end of 1915

  • Kitchener’s Army or the New Army

THE SUCCESS

• Very successful in beginning of the war.

  • Mid November 1914 - 700,000 volunteers.

  • January 1915 - 1.34 million volunteers.

  • End of 1915 - over 3 million volunteers.

  • No need for conscription.

WHY ENLIST?

• Romantic ideas of adventure.

• Excitement

• Duty to defend king, country and empire.

• Escape their dreary existence.

• Full time work

• Peer pressure

• Impress women

• Belief war would be quick → need to volunteer quickly to avoid missing out.

HOW TO GET IN

• There were very high physical standards.

  • 168cm tall

  • 19-30 years of age.

• By mid-1915 - volunteer numbers start to drop to 22 000 per week.

  • 157 cm tall

  • 19 - 40 years of age

HOW DOES ONE DEAL WITH THESE PROBLEMS

WHAT DID THEY DO?

• Propaganda:

  • Aimed specifically at women.

v  To pressure their loved ones.

v  Failure to enlist = coward.

• Sports Clubs:

  • Used to promote recruitment.

  • Army used grounds as training + military bands played to big crowds.

THE DETAILS:

• January 1916 - “Military Service Act”

  • Came into effect 2nd March

  • All single + childless widowers aged 18 - 40

  • Exceptions: essential services, clergymen, medically unfit.

• May 1916 - amendment to act.

  • All men liable for service, regardless of marital status.

• April 1918 - Revised again

  • Conscription from 17 - 51 years.

CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTORS:

• A person who for reasons of conscience, object to the war.

• 16000 men in Britain registered as ‘conchies’

• If failed to register and join up they could be imprisoned.

• Some took non-combatant roles e.g. stretchers.

• Often treated harshly - cowards, slackers and traitors.

• Absolutists: people who refused to have anything to do with army → were treated harshly → some even taken to front, tied to posts in no man’s land.

BRITISH CENSORSHIP:

WHAT:

• Censorship was indistinguishable from propaganda.

• It was designed to minimise bad news or keep it from the public entirely.

• APRIL 1915: Directorate of Special Intelligence (DSI) setup to coordinate all censorship.

• The Defence of the Realm Act gave the government the right to regulate → “to prevent the spread of false reports or reports likely to cause disaffection” OR “to interfere with the ‘success’ of the armed forces” OR “prejudiced relations with foreign powers”.

WHAT WAS CENSORED?

• Letters home.

• Soldiers could not keep diaries.

• Newspapers/magazines.

• Britain’s ministry of information sent artists to the front to produce paintings, films, etc.

• Images of dead and wounded were excluded.

GERMAN CONSCRIPTION

BACKGROUND:

• Conscription had been traditionally accepted as a way of life for Germans.

• Therefore, Germany had a large standing army at the outbreak of war.

• However, they did not need conscription at the start of war due to enormous enthusiasm.

THE LAWS:

• July 1914 - Martial Law declared → military government, involving the suspension of ordinary laws.

• Generals had unlimited power.

• Government increased control over the population with other laws.

  • E.g. Auxiliary Services Law 1916

ALLIED VICTORY

EVENTS LEADING TO THE ARMSTICE

• Technology and tactics – Evolution of combined arms warfare (coordination of infantry, artillery, tanks and planes on a field of battle).

• Hamel (4th of July 1918) – Barrage followed by Aus/US/British Tanks – town taken in 93 minutes.

• Victory at Amiens (8th of August) – 50,000 German casualties, 30,000 captured, 20,000 killed.

• The allies know how to fight an industrial war.

• Allied home front effectively and quickly replaced equipment lost in the Spring Offensive.

• Bulgaria sues for peace on the 29th of September.

• Czechoslovakia declares independence on the 21st of October – Yugoslavia does too

• Ludendorff resigns on the 27th of October.

• The Ottoman Empire capitulates on the 30th of October.

• Austria-Hungary falls apart – sues for armistice on the 30th of October.

• Mutiny breaks out in the German Army at the start of November.

• The Kaiser abdicated on the 9th of November – revolution in Berlin.

• Negotiations are finalised at 5:30am on the 11th of November.

• The German Home front has collapsed entirely.

REASONS FOR ALLIED VICTORY

• The allied command structure allowed more efficient organisation of resources and the ability to direct a highly coordinated and well-prepared counter offense.

• Ferdinand Foch, as Allied commander, encouraged flexibility, provided unity of purpose and planning.

• Allied factories provided adequate weaponry and more sophisticated technology necessary for breaking the deadlock and maintaining the counter attack – machine guns provided mobile fire, tanks provided protection of troops and aircraft bombed and strafed behind enemy lines.

• Allied nations achieved greater industrial and agricultural output and drew on the vast resources of the British and French empires.

• British enjoyed naval supremacy and the allies established a naval blockade that prevented German access to its resources – Germany’s U-boat warfare failed to break the naval blockade.

• The American alliance provided troop reinforcements at the critical time for the allies – they provided financial support and strengthened the allied resources.

• Germany’s allies were a burden – Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary and the Ottomans were unable to break through on any front between 1914 and 1917.

CREATING THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES

• Clemenceau –

  • Throughout negotiations, he insisted that Germany remained a potential threat and severe measures were justified to ensure German disarmament and the future security of France.

  • Clemenceau held Germany responsible for devastating his country and killing 1.4 million French soldiers.

  • He resented American attempts to dictate terms for Britain and France’s settlement with Germany.

  • He demanded revenge and reparations.

• Lloyd George –

  • Not in favour of imposing a harsh peace upon Germany, but he had just won an election where he had publicly committed to ‘make Germany pay’.

  • Feared the allies had pushed Germany too far.

  • He argued that the terms of the treaty were too severe and would jeopardise the future peace and stability of Europe – the representatives of the German government signed the treaty with great protest.

  • He wanted 5 specific concessions –

    • The destruction of the German fleet.

    • The destruction of the German colonial empire.

    • An increase in British colonial possessions, especially in the Middle East for oil.

    • The reestablishment of European trade disrupted by war.

    • The prevention of any country, including France, from dominating Europe.

  • Therefore, he did not support French demands for virtual destruction of Germany as French territorial demands would sow the seeds for future conflicts and desire for revenge.

• Woodrow Wilson –

  • Depicted as a naïve humanitarian – promoting that the treaty offered an opportunity for considered and reasonable peace.

  • Wilson regarded the European leaders as vindictive and self-interested and they regarded him as not a good diplomat.

  • He was naïve in his idealism, but his main aim was to ‘make the world safe for democracy’.

  • He was able to get some of his 14 points into the treaty including the League of Nations but failed to gain acceptance in the USA.

EVALUATION OF THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES

• Too harsh.

• Didn’t create a feeling of peace and security.

• The treaty failed to create a stable and permanent peace in Europe.

• It did not eradicate the problems that had led to the outbreak of WW1.

• The treaty intimidated Germany without sufficiently weakening its power and therefore, in this sense, the treaty was not harsh enough in that it was not able to repress the future political upheaval that led to the rise of Hitler.

• Although the reparations were excessively high, they were not paid, they were realistic and only served to cause further resentment among the Germans.

• It was not fair to label Germany as solely responsible for the war as this was a radical distortion of the origins of war which involved not only Germany but all major powers.

• The allies did not base the Treaty of Versailles entirely on Wilson’s 14 points, which made Germany complain.