African Americans in the “New South”

New South: A vision for a new post-reconstruction Southern economy based on industrialization (much like the Northern economy)

• Growth in textile manufacturing

• In the lower South, the iron and steel industry grew rapidly

• Railroad development increased substantially

• High % of factory workers (esp. textiles) were women due to heavy male casualties in the Civil War creating a population of unmarried women seeking employment

• Much lower average income than the North (attractive to employers), long work hours, and suppressed unionization

Jim Crow Laws- Laws enacted in the South enforcing racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans to keep them oppressed

• Segregation- Requiring separation of facilities like schools, transportation, restaurants, restrooms, etc. based on race—facilities for African Americans were often of poorer quality

• Voting Restriction Laws/Disenfranchisement: States found ways to evade the 15th amendment (equal suffrage for all men) to keep Whites in power

  • Poll Tax: Pay a tax to vote—African Americans often had little income and could not pay the tax

  • Property Requirement: Must own property to vote—most African Americans did not own private property, many worked as sharecroppers

  • Literacy Test: Must pass a literacy test (involving reading and interpreting the Constitution) to vote—many African Americans were uneducated and illiterate since they previously did not attend schools; Additionally, literacy tests for White people were sometimes much easier

  • Grandfather Laws: Those whose grandparents voted could also vote—most African American grandparents were slaves; Allowed poor White people to vote

  • Supreme Court also lenient on these voting restriction laws—voided the grandfather laws but upheld the literacy test (Williams v. Mississippi)

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)- Determined the constitutionality of segregation- “separate but equal”

• Homer Plessey, a black man in Louisiana, boarded a whites-only train car and refused to move to the designated colored car—arrested for violating Louisiana’s Separate Car Act requiring racial segregation on trains

• Supreme Court upheld that separate accommodations for races were legal as long as facilities were equal—did not violate 14th amendment

• Impact: Reinforced the legality of racial segregation and separate facilities which was often not equal in reality

Lynching and the Ku Klux Klan: Along with Jim Crow laws, there was an increase in violence (lynching) against African Americans by White mobs

• Pubic lynchings occurred in cities and towns—seized black prisoners from jail and hung them in public rituals as well as private lynchings by friends/relatives of the victim

• Way to control Black populations through fear and intimidation

Westward Expansion

• Homestead Act (1862): Permitted settlers to purchase 160 acres of land plots for a small fee if they lived and tended to the land for 5 years

  • Form of government relief and created new markets for commercial agriculture by increasing agricultural development in those lands

  • Attracted diverse groups of settlers to the Western territories—increased westward expansion

  • Negatively impacted Native Americans by infringing on their land and displacing tribes

Mining

• California Gold rush in 1849 attracted settlers hoping to make quick fortunes by mining precious metals

• Following Gold Rush, several “mining booms” where gold or silver was found in an area, attracting migrants; first individual prospectors exploit shallow depostis of ore via hand or plan and placer mining; After, corporations dug down for lode or quartz mining; After ore deposits depleted, ranchers and farmers established more permanent economy

• Working conditions in mining towns were horrible with many workers dying of heatstroke, poor ventilation causing CO2 accumulations, silicosis from inhaling lethal dust, and many accidents

Cowboys and Romantic Image of the Western Frontier

• Great Plans provided cattle grazing lands and cowboys would herd cattle to sellers which are sold to buyers

• Many Americans romanticized the free-spirited lifestyle of the cowboy—reality low-paid workers;

• Many movies/literature surrounding cowboys and the frontier—turning them into a hero figure and symbol of the American natural man ex. Mark Twain (author), Fredrick Remington (painter), Theodore Roosevelt

• Fredrick Jackson Turner’s Frontier Thesis: Argued that the exploration into the unknown American frontier was a defining symbol of the American way of life

  • West was not actually a frontier according to Turner’s definitions—an empty, uncivilized land awaiting settlement since White migrants joined preestalbished societies and cultures

• Later invention of the barbed wire made it nearly impossible to herd large herds of cattle—decline of cowboys

• *In the 1880s, worldwide overproduction led to a drop in prices for agricultural goods and distress for American farmers

Indian Wars

Background: Tribal Policies and Reservations

• Traditionally regarded tribes as independent nations and negotiated treaties with them

• Idea of establishing large enclaves for natives in the face of demands for access to lands in Indian Territories

• Concentration Policy (1851) each tribe assigned their own designated reservation through separate treaties (often negotiated illegitimately); divided tribes making them easier to control and saved most desireable lands for white settlement

• In 1867 established Indian Peace Commission recommending a plan to move all Plains Indians into two large resetvations in Oklahoma and Dakotas

  • Ineffective since management of Indian matters entrusted to the Bureau of Indian Affairs with the bureau’s agents being porducts of political patronage (dishonest and incompetent) or ill prepared for their jos with no understanding of tribal ways of life

• Indian Appropriation Act of 1871- US would not longer consider tribes sovereign nations and enter into treaties with them, considered as part of the US; Marked a broader shift towards assimiltion

Background: Buffalo

• Buffalo were an essential resource to the way of life of the Plains Indians

• White people were hunting buffalo to near extinction: provide large bands of migrants with food and supplies, high demand for buffalo robes and leather, gangs of professional hunters hunting buffalo, riflemen hied y railroad companies to clear obstructions to railroad traffic, and occassionally some Indian tribes (Blackfeet) killing buffalo to sell to the new market

Indian Resistance

• Initially Indian warriors attacked wagon trains, coaches, and isolated ranches in retaliation—when US army became involved turned attacks towards white soldiers

• Indians growing frustrated with life on the reservations + buffalo hunting = feel need to fight back to preserve their way of life

• Eastern Sioux tribes in Minnesota exploited by corrupt white agents rebelled led by Little Crow killing many whites before being subdued, hung, and exiled to the Dakotas

• Sand Creek Massacre-Arapaho and Cheyenne conflict with white miners in Colorado attacked stagecoach lines and settlements; Whites called in territorial militia and governor urged friendly Indians to stay at army posts for protection; One band under Chief Black Kettle camped near Fort Lyon and were massacred

• Certain whites engaged in Indian hunting as a sport due to some committing to the goal of eliminating the tribes

• *Sioux tribe led by leaders Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull rose up in 1875 and left their reservations—army led by Colonel George A. Custer set out to round Indians up and force them back onto reservations

  • Battle of Little Bighorn- Indian warriors surprised Custer and his men outnumbered them with one of the largest Indian armies ever assembled (2500 warriors), surrounded them, and killed them

  • Ultimately Indians did not have sufficient political organizations or supplies to unite troops—warriors drifted off in pursuit of food and forced back onto Dakota reservations

• Chief Joseph leader of the Nez Perce urged followers to flee from American troops after being forced to move onto a reservation—fled to take refuge in Canada but most were caught just short of the Canadian border

• Chiricachua Apache tribes one of the last Indians to maintain organized resistance against the whites—chief Geronimo fought to establish bases in the mountains and led intermittent raids against white outposts

• Ghost Dance Movement

  • A religious revival among the Sioux tribes started by a Paiute prophet Wovoka involving a mass emotional Ghost Dance ritual to communite/honor ancestor spirits and inspiring visions of a better future where their ways of life would be restored with the retreat of white people from the plains

  • White soldiers/government viewed the dance with concern that it might be a dance in preparation for battle—Ghost dance banned on some reservations

  • Battle at Wounded Knee 1890 (Massacre): Seventh Calvary tried to round up a goup of Sioux with fighting breaking out—soon turned into massacre

• Dawes Act (1887): Forced Indians to assimilate into white society by becoming farmers and landowners—abandoning collective tribal land ownership

  • Authorized federal government to survey tribal lands and allot tracts to individual owners—the head of the family recieved 160 acres, 80 acres for single adult/orphan, 40 acres to each dependent child

  • Could not gain full title to their property unless they tended and lived on the land for 25 years

  • Assimilation: Sent children to white boarding schools, stopped religious rituals in place of Christianity and the establishment of Christian churches

Chinese Migration

• Chinese migrated across the Pacific to the West Coast and California for economic opportunities

• Initially welcomed for being hardworking and filling the inadequate labor forces—attitudes quickly turned hostile as Chinese immigrants were industrious and successful and became a competition for economic opportunities

• Gold Rush

  • Many Chinese immigrants came to California during the Gold Rush and worked in the gold mines, with many of them finding considerable success

  • White miners became hostile towards foreign miners for stealing their Gold → Foreign Miner Tax

  • California’s Foreign Miners Tax (1852)- Attempts to discourage Chinese from gold mining by requiring them (and Mexicans) to pay a tax

  • Impact: Eventually, a series of other discriminatory laws + hostility of White miners + declining profitability of mines led to the Chinese leaving gold mining in search of other jobs

• Transcontinental Railroad

  • In 1865 many Chinese worked on building the Transcontinental Railroad with the Central Pacific Railroad Company building the western portion of the railroad

  • Preferred over white workers because they worked hard, had little demands, accepted low wages

  • Work often dangerous—Central Pacific provided little worker protections

  • After the completion of the railroad, many Chinese hired themselves on new drainage and irrigation projects, others became agricultural laborers or tenant farmers—MOST flocked to cities

• Chinatown Ethnic Enclaves

  • By 1900 nearly half of the Chinese population in California lived in cities—largest Chinese community in San Francisco

  • Formed communities revolving around powerful organizations usually formed by those from a single clan or community in China functioned as societies to address common social and financial issues and filled many of the roles political machines served in immigrant communities

  • Led by prominent merchants (San Francisco—the “Six Companies”) worked to advance their interests and these organizations became employment brokers, unions, arbitrators of disputes, dispensers of social services, and practiced traditional cultures through festivals

  • Other Chinese organizations were secret societies called “tongs” often violent criminal organizations involved in opium trade and prostitution

  • Chinese often occupied lower rungs of the employment ladder with low-wage jobs (common laborers, servants, unskilled factory workers) some created own small businesses, especially laundromats due to lack of employment opportunities elsewhere

  • Chinese women immigrants were often sold into prsotitution

  • Chinese Exclusion Act (1882): Due to political pressure and growing violence, Congress passed a law banning Chinese Immigration to the US for the next 10 years and prevented Chinese already in the US from becoming naturalized citizens; Reflected growing fear of unemployment and labor unrest throughout the nation believing it would protect American workers and reduce class conflict; Law was renewed in 1892 and made permanent in 1902–decline in Chinese population by more than 40%

Industrialization

Robber Barons: Group of wealthy and powerful industrialists associated with ruthless business practices, monopoly building, and the exploitation of labor

• Monopolies: Elimination of competition through tactics such as predatory pricing, collusion, and the formation of trusts and holding companies

• Labor conditions in industries controlled by these magnates were often harsh, with long hours, low wages, and little concern for worker safety

• Some robber barons gained immense wealth by monopolizing and controlling essential natural resources, such as oil, coal, and steel

• Examples: Andrew Carnegie, John R. Rockefeller, J.P. Morgan

Andrew Carnegie 🔧

Carnegie Steel Industrialist

• Carnegie was a Scottish immigrant who opened his own steelworks in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania in 1873 and soon dominated the steel industry—considered a self-made man rags to riches

• Popularized the Bessemer steel-making process used for building railways

• He cut costs/lowered prices by striking deals with railroads, paying lower wages, and buying out rivals who could not compete with him (monopoly), and using vertical integration to take over the different businesses that he relied on for various stages of production

• He controlled the process of his steel from the mine to the market and he financed his business not only through his own profits but through stock sales

• He and his associate Henry Frick bought coal mines and leased a part of the Mesabi iron-ore range in Minnesota, operated a fleet of ore ships on the Great Lakes, and acquired railroads

• In 1901 he sold his business for $450 million to banker J.P. Morgan who merged Carnegie to create the United States Steel Corporation that would control 2/3 of US steel production

Philanthropist

• Carnegie dedicated much of his wealth to funding public libraries and schools because he believed it was a way for the poor to improve themselves

  • Semi-Social Darwinism because instead of donating money to the poor he prioritizes giving the poor a means to educate themselves and climb the social ladder themselves

• “The man who dies rich thus dies disgraced”

• Institutions he funded included Carnegie Hall, Carnegie Mellon University, Carnegie Libraries in various locations

Gospel of Wealth

• Carnegie advocated for the Gospel of Wealth, believing that the wealthy should consider all revenues excess of their own needs as trust funds to be used for the good of the community

Homestead Strike

• By mid-1800s new production methods in the steel industries streamlined steelmaking process and decreased dependence on skilled labor

• Organized by the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers affiliated with the AFL, one of the most powerful trade unions in the US

• Carnegie and Frick wanted to get rid of the Amalgamated at the Homestead plant near Pittsburg, thus repeatedly cut wages at Homestead over the next 2 years

• Carnegie’s company eventually stopped discussing decisions with the Amalgamated union denying the union’s right to negotiate

• Strike was called when Frick announced another wage cut with 2 days for the union to accept

• Frick shut down the plant and called 300 guards from the Pinkerton Detective Agency strikebreakers to allow the company to hire nonunion workers

• Violence broke out and the Pinkertons surrendered. However, the Pennsylvania governor sent the state’s National Guard to break the strike at Homestead

• After 4 months the Amalgamated union surrendered and over time major steel plants in the Northeast broke ties with the union

• Represent the trend of a decrease in union strength in the late nineteenth century due to factory labor becoming increasingly unskilled → workers easier to replace

John D. Rockefeller 🛢

Standard Oil Founder

• Standard Oil was created through both horizontal and vertical integration

  • Horizontal Integration: Combining of several firms engaged in the same enterprise into a single company

  • Vertical Integration: Taking over all of the different businesses in which a company relied on for its primary function

• After the Civil War, Rockefeller launched an oil refining company in Cleveland and began trying to eliminate competition by allying with wealthy capitalists and buy out competing refineries

• Formed the Standard Oil Company of Ohio in 1870 which acquired nearly all the refineries in Cleveland as well as other locations. Rockefeller built his own barrel factories, terminal warehouses, pipelines, and owned its own freight cars and marketing organization

• Became a leading symbol of monopoly that controlled access to 90% of refined oil in the US

• Businessmen like Rockefeller feared cutthroat competition and saw consolidation or taking over one’s competitors as a solution

Monopoly and Antitrust Laws

• Concerns regarding Standard Oil’s Monopoly led people to the US government to suit Standard Oil for violating the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 outlawing monopolies and in 1911 ruled that Standard Oil should be dissolved into smaller independent businesses

Social Darwinism

• Rockefeller justified his successes in business through Social Darwinism believing it not to be evil but a law of nature and God for the fittest business to survive

Philanthropy and the Rockefeller Foundation

• Rockefeller was a Baptist who believed in Christian stewardship—using wealth for the improvement of society

• He established the Rockefeller Foundation in 1913 donating a large portion of his wealth towards various educational, religious, and scientific purposes Ex. Founded the University of Chicago

Cornelius Vanderbilt 🚉

Shipping Tycoon

• Vanderbilt started out by establishing the Vanderbilt Steamship Company operating a steamship and ferry service in New York

• His business grew in influence due to his fierce fare wars with competitors

Railroad Tycoon

• In the 1860s Vanderbilt shifted his focus to the railroad industry and consolidated several of the nation’s railroad companies to expand the New York Central Railroad

• Vanderbilt established Manhattan’s Grand Central Depot in 1871 which later became the Grand Central Terminal

• He was involved in the infamous Erie Railroad War of 1868 where he battled for control over the Erie railroad

Monopoly

• Increasing concerns towards monopolies for price inflation charging high rates i.e. railroads charged high rates along routes due to the abscence of competition

• Price inflations also led to economic instability with erratic market fluctuations and seveere recessions

• Threatened people’s ability to advantace in the world since control of the industry belonged to only some wealthy, powerful individuals

• Threatened ideal of wage-earning husband since monopolies reduced opportunities to succeed and the idea of a self-made man

• Emergence of new wealthy class that controlled a large percentage of the nation’s assets (extreme income inequality with %1 of America’s families controlling 88% of the nation’s assets). For instance, the Vanderbilts maintained seven mansions on New York’s Fifth Avenue

• Vanderbilt had a reputation for his ruthless and competitive business practices such as his involvement in the Erie Railroad Wars

• Vanderbilt was nicknamed “Commodore” which became a symbol for enormous wealth and excessive corporate power

• Unlike other wealthy industrialists of the Guilded Age, Vanderbilt did not give away very much of his wealth in the name of philanthropy, he only founded Vanderbilt University in Tennessee.

Boss Tweed AKA William Magear Tweed

Context- Political Boss Rule and the Political Machine

• The emergence of urban, political bosses often of foreign birth/parentage, often of Irish descent, with the goal of wining votes for his organization

• To appeal to the public, many provided potential voters with relief baskets (groceries, bags of coal) or stood up for those arrested for petty crimes, and rewarded followers with patronage or jobs in the city government/agencies

• Their main voters were the most vulnerable and largest populations—immigrants who were more concerned with obtaining the services political machines provided

• Utilized political machines/position to make profit (corruption)

• Political bosses often also modernized city infrastructure, and expanded the role of government

• Reform groups often mobilized public outrage at the corruption and drove political machines from office

Boss Tweed’s Corruption

• Tweed rose to prominence as the leader of Tammany Hall, the Democratic Party political machine in New York City

• Tammany Hall became a powerful political organization, controlling various aspects of city government, including the police force, courts, and municipal offices

• Tweed was involved in public works projects aimed at improving infrastructure in New York City

• Tweed was known for his use of political patronage, rewarding loyal supporters with government jobs and contracts. Tweed was criticized for practicing cronyism and nepotism, appointing friends and family members to key positions within the government.

• Tweed's political career was marred by corruption and fraud. He and his associates engaged in embezzlement, bribery, and kickbacks, leading to substantial financial gains for themselves at the expense of the public.

• The exposure of financial irregularities, particularly through the efforts of political cartoonist Thomas Nast, resulted in Tweed's arrest and imprisonment in 1873

Working Class

• Flow of rural Americans into cities for new economic and social opportunities to escape poverty and oppression in home countries

• Waves of immigrants from Europe particularly (East Coast) and Asia (West Coast)

• In 1870s-80s most East Coast immigrants were from England, Ireland, Northern Europe but by the end of the century, large numbers of southern and Eastern Europeans (Italy, Poland, Russia, Greece, etc.) moved to America into the industrial workforce

• West Coast immigrants from Mexico and Asia

• Exploited—Railroads lured immigrants by distributing misleading advertisements and employers actively employed immigrants as unskilled laborers under the Contract Labor Law (pay for their voyage and deduct from wages later) or with the assistance of labor brokers

• Decreasing need for skilled workers led to more use of unskilled women and children laborers that could be hired for lower wages—women largely worked in textile factories

National Labor Union

• Existing individual unions could not exert significant power—attempt to form a single national organization in 1866 when William H. Sylvia founded the National Labor Union

• Included a variety of reform groups having little direct relationship with labor

• Excluded women workers as male workers argued women used to drive down their wages and men should be the breadwinners

• Disintegrated after the Panic of 1873

Great Railroad Strike of 1877

• Americas first major national labor conflict/big strike that shut down 2/3 of the nation’s railroads

• Began when Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company announced a 10% wage cut—strike spread throughout the naiton with with strikers disrupting rail service, blocking railroad tracks

• Violence broke out as state militias and federal troops sent to suppress the strike—strike failed

• Impact:

  • Demonstrated how disputes between employees and employers were no longer on a local scale

  • Amount of resentment many workers had towards employers

  • Fragility of the labor movement

  • Failure of the strike weakened railroad unions and damaged labor unions’ reputations

Terrence Powderly 

Knights of Labor

• Knight of Labor accepted all workers including women, skilled and unskilled workers. Leaders were interested in economic reform placing the wage system with a cooperative system in which workers controlled a large part of the economy

• Knights of Labor had operated as a secret fraternal organization for several years. Under the leadership of Terence V. Powderly, it became an open and public organization and Powderly helped greatly expand membership

• While Powderly did not categorically reject strikes, he preferred negotiation and arbitration over strikes. He believed that strikes should be a last resort and advocated for peaceful means of resolving labor disputes

• Powderly emphasized the importance of education and intellectual development among workers. He believed that an educated workforce would be better equipped to engage in negotiations and make informed decisions about their labor rights

• Powderly was known for his opposition to socialist ideologies within the labor movement. He preferred a more moderate and cooperative approach, distinguishing the Knights of Labor from some other labor organizations with socialist leanings

• The Haymarket Square Riot in Chicago led to declined support for the Knights of Labor eventually leading to the decline of the union

Haymarket Square Affair (1886)

• Knights of Labor helped protest in support of the striking workers at Chicago’s McCormick Harvester Company for an 8-hour workday—opposing police violence against striking workers

• When police ordered crowd to disperse, an anarchist threw a bomb into the crowd that killed several officers and injured many

• Impact: Tarnnished the reputation of the Knights of Labor (led to a decline in membership and ultimate demise) and other labor movements → associated with anarchy which became associated with violence and terrorism

Samuel Gompers

American Federation of Labor

• Leader and founder of the AFL uniting skilled workers from various trades to address bread-and-butter issues like higher wages and better working conditions through collective bargaining power Ex. National 8-hour workday

• Gompers opposed reliance on government efforts to improve labor conditions such as creating a workers’ political party or socialist/communist influences in the labor organizations since he believed in the practical and economic goals of organized labor rather than pursuing broader social or political ideologies, focusing on the relationship between workers and management.

• Exclusive against unskilled workers, women, black peopple, recent immigrants

• Gompers took a more conservative approach and avoided radical ideologies which contributed to the AFL’s success and support from the people and governments

• AFL leaders were hostile towards women working and tried to persuade women to remain at home, believing it was easy for employers to pay women less than men, thus driving down wages for all workers. Gompers thought women in the workforce would undermine and challenge the man’s position as the head of the household.

Eugene Debs

• Eugene V. Debs was a prominent American labor leader who founded the American Railway Union (ARU), socialist, and five-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America

American Railway Union and Pullman Strike

• Debs founded the American Railway Union in 1893 to unite all railway workers

• The Pullman Strike took place in 1894 after the Pullman Palace Car Company in Chicago slashed wages by 25% while refusing to reduce rents in its model town

• Debs led the strike, advocating for workers to refuse to handle Pullman cars and equipment and walk off their jobs—led to a nationwide railway worker strike

• Issue with the interference of nationwide mail delivery via trains—President justified federal intervention of strike due to obstruction of mail delivery which was a Constitutionally protected service

• Federal troops were sent to Chicago to intervene and arrest striking workers, including Debs. This instance elevated Deb’s status as a nationally-known labor leader

Socialist Party

• His experience being imprisoned led Debs to turn to socialism. Debs was a founding member of The Socialist Party of America in 1901 that went on to grow to have a considerable voter base, and Debs became the primary presidential candidate.

• He advocated for public/government ownership of key industries and the means of production to eliminate exploitation

• Debs ran for President of the United States as the Socialist Party candidate five times. While he never won, his campaigns contributed to the visibility and growth of the socialist movement in the early 20th century

Sources of Labor Weakness

• In the last decades of the 1800s, the labor movement made few real gains and suffered many losses

• Principle labor organizations like the AFL only reporesented small precentages of the industrial workforce

• Shifting nature of the workforce due to influx of immigrants aiming to work only briefly to earn money before returning home → less willing to unionize; some constantly moving jobs unable to establish instutional ties

• Corporate organizations had considerable wealth and power and crushed union efforts through force and infiltration of unions to sabatoge

Urbanization

Rapid Urban Growth

• Urban cities grew largely due to immigration (still had high infant mortality, declining fertility rate, high disease death rate)

• Due to availability of conveniences, entertainments, and cultural experiences unale to be found in the rural communities

• Economic opportunities with higher paying jobs

• Railroads and faster transportation facilitated the migration to urban cities

Ethnic Enclaves

• By 1890 populatiosn of some major urban areas consisted of a majority of foreign-born immigrants and their children

• Unique diversity of new immigrant populations in the US—no single naitonal group dominated so various ehtnic groups lived in close proximity

• To ease transition to city life, national groups formed close-knit ethnic communities within cities called immigrant ghettos to recreate many features of their home countries

• Retained parts of their original culture—newspapers/theatres in native languages, stores seling native foods, churches, and many kept in contact with families back home to return after some time or bring their families to America

• *Ethnic neighborhoods often became targets of political bosses

Assimilation

• Many immigrants retained the dream to become true Americans and tried to rid of their old cultures and values esp. second-generation immigrants

• A particular issue was gender roles and the role of women, most immigrants came from cultures where women were subordinate and focused on family duties—many immigrant women worked outside the home due to economic necessity

• Americans also pushed for assimilation

  • Public schools taught English and it was a skill often required for jobs

  • Most stores sold American products → immigrants had to adapt their lifestyles to American norms

  • Church leaders encouraged people to adopt American culture

  • Rise of reformed theologies to be more compatible with American values i.e. Reform Judaism

Nativism

• The influx of new immigrants elicited mixed reactions among Americans, with nativist sentiments fueled by competition, religious differences, and concerns about racial purity from racial purists.

• Nativist lobbying culminated in legislative measures restricting immigration, including the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), executive agreements limiting Japanese immigration, and formation of the Immigrant Restruction League or American Protective Association in 1894

• In 1917 Congress implemented literacy tests and quotas to gain admission to keep out criminals, anarchists, alcoholics, etc.

• Immigration Act of 1924 established a cap or quota on new immigrants by only admitting 3% more of the immigrants of that nationality present in the US

Tenement Housing

• Most urban workers could not afford to buy houses in the cities or move to the suburbs—had to stay in densely packed tenements

• Issues included windowless rooms, little-no plumbing or central heating, little sunlight, multiple families crowded into one room

• Jacob Riis: New York newspaper reporter and photographer described and photographed life in the tenements and published in his book “How the Other Half Lives” (1890) that exposed the horrible living conditions of the urban poor to the middle-class → contributed to housing reforms and improved sanitation standards in NYC

Transporation:

• Rapid urban growth brough transpotation challenges with old downtown streets often too narrow for heavy traffic and paving of streets unable to keep up with expanding cities

• Developement of forms of mass transit like elevated railways, cable cars, electric trolleys, and subways

• Cities developed new techniques for road and ridge building (i.e. Brooklyn Bridge)

Skyscrapers: Cities growing upwards rather than outwards due to limited land space; New methods of construction using cast iron and steel and development of machine-powered eevators made it easier to build tall buildings

Urban Issues:

• Fire- fires destroyed large downtown areas where many buildings still constructed with wood → encouragedd construction of fireproof uildings and development of fire departments + forced cities to rebuild with modern, high-rise downtowns

• Pollution and poor sanitation- improper disposal of human and industrial waste and lack of sewage systems polluted drinking water; poor air quality with perpetual ofgs created from burning fossil fuels in factories, homes, etc.

• Disease- High rates of respiratory infection and related diseases from air pollution; cholera (contaminated water), typhoid (unsanitary food/water), influenza, yellow fever, tuberculosis, lead poisoning, etc.; later established a public health service for health standards and improved sanitation + sewage systems

• Poverty- philantrophic organizations had limited relief since majority were middle-class believing too much assisance would lead to dependency and poverty resulted from laziness; Organizations like the Salvation Army focused more on religious revivalism than relief for the homeless/hungry

• High Crime Rates- Poverty and crowding bred crime mostly minor incidents like pickpocketing but more serious crimes like murder rose → encouraged cities to develop larger, more professional police forces unlike previously where they were private and informal organizations

• Political Corruption (Urban bosses and the political machine)

Other Urban trends

• Increased consumerism esp. among middle-class with changes in marketing, chain stores, department stores

• Emergence of leisure time and forms of entertainment like spectator sports (i.e. baseball, college football)

• Music and theatre productions

• Working class leisure included the saloon (bar), boxing

Jane Addams   

Social Reforms

• Jane Addams was an American activist who was an important leader in the history of social work and women's suffrage

• Social Settlement: She founded the Hull House in Chicago in 1889 which was a social settlement that provided social services and cultural opportunities to immigrants and the urban poor (nursery, community kitchen, college-level courses and training in art, music, and theatre, etc.)

• Child Labor: Addams was a strong advocate for child labor reform. She worked to improve the conditions of child laborers and fought for legislation to regulate and limit child labor

• Laborer Rights: Addams supported the rights of workers and was involved in various labor-related activities. She worked to improve labor conditions and supported workers' rights to organize and bargain collectively

• Women’s Suffrage: Addams was an active supporter of women's suffrage and a member of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). She believed that women's participation in the political process was crucial for social reform

• Public Health: Addams was involved in public health initiatives, addressing issues such as sanitation, disease prevention, and healthcare access. Hull House provided a range of health services to the surrounding community

• Peace Activism: Addams was a leading figure in the peace movement, particularly during World War I. She co-founded the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) in 1915, advocating for disarmament, international cooperation, and the prevention of war

• Addams was a prolific writer and speaker. She authored numerous articles and books on social issues, including "Twenty Years at Hull-House," which detailed her experiences and observations at the settlement house

New Public Issues

Interstate Commerce Act 1887 (Railroad Regulation)

• Banned discrimination in rates between long and short hauls

• Require railroads to publish their rate schedules and set standards for railroad travel rates to prevent price gouging

• Interstate Commerce Commision established to administer the act

The Grangers

• A farmers organization aimed to provide education (teaching new scientific agricultural techniques), a sense of community, and address economic challenges for farmers

• Later organized marketing cooperatives to circumvent the middle men who managed the sale of farmers’ crops in exchange for a large cut of the profits

• Urged cooperative political action to curb monopoistic practices by railroads and warehouses

• Set up cooperative stores/enterprises like creameries, elevators, warehouses, insurance companies, factories etc.—most failed due to inexperience of operators and opposition of the middlemen

• Involved in political advocacy by electing state legislators pledged to their programs usually through existing parties but occassionally under independent parties—led to the passage of Granger laws in several statesimposing strict regulations on railroad rates and practices which were soon destroyed by the courts

Farmer’s Alliance:

• Successor to the Grange and a leading vehicle of agrarian protest

• Form in 1875 with Southern farmers banding together to address local prolems—formed cooperatives and other marketiing mechanisms, established facilities (sotres, banks, processing plants) for their members to free them from the furnishing merchants who kept farmers in debt

• Some leaders saw the movement as a effort to build a society in which economic competition might give way to cooperation—mutual neighborly responsibility to resist opporessive outside forces and traveled throughout rural areas attacking the concerntration of power in great corporations and fcinancial institutions—promoting cooperation as an alternative economic system

• Alliance emphasized education to help farmers better understand economic and political issues. Lectures, study groups, and publications were used to inform and empower farmers in their efforts to address economic disparities

• One of the central proposals advocated by the Farmers' Alliance was the subtreasury plan. This plan called for the establishment of government-owned warehouses where farmers could store their crops and receive low-interest loans using the stored crops as collateral. The subtreasury plan aimed to provide farmers with more control over their products and reduce their dependence on commercial banks

• In the 1890s, the Farmers' Alliance became closely associated with the Populist Party, a political force that sought to address the concerns of farmers and working-class individuals

Populist: People’s Party

• Populist dreamed of creating a broad political coalition but populism always appealed principally to farmers—usually family farmers struggling to hold on their land and engaged in a type of farming that was ecoming less viable than new mechanized consolidated commercial agriculture

Binding the Nation by Rail 🚂

Early Rail Travel in America:

• Locomotive was not invented in the Gilded Age as Americans traveled by rail prior to the Civil War.

• Travel was risky and uncomfortable:

  • Passengers sat near wood burners → sparks landing on clothing

  • Unreliable braking systems

  • Engine explosions

  • Frequent train changes due to varying track widths between companies.

Post-Civil War Improvements:

• George Westinghouse invented the air brake → enhanced train safety.

• Railroad firms agreed on standard track width → reduced transfers.

• Pullman Car Company introduced sleeper and dining cars for increased comfort.

Vision of a Transcontinental Railroad:

• Since the 1830s aspired to link the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by rail.

• Transcontinental Railroad benefits:

  • Western settlement- important national interest

  • New markets for Eastern manufacturers

  • Relief for overcrowded eastern cities

  • Spread democratic values

  • Increase the size of the U.S. (Arizona, Oklahoma, New Mexico, etc. were not yet states only territories)

• "Manifest Destiny" coined by journalist John L. O'Sullivan in 1845 suggests it was God’s will for the U.S. to expand across the entire continent.

Construction of the Transcontinental Railroad:

• Union Pacific and Central Pacific companies awarded the contract for linking the coasts by rail.

• Union Pacific workers, mainly Irish and Chinese immigrants, started from the East → West in Omaha, Nebraska.

• Central Pacific began West → East from Sacramento, California, with help from numerous Chinese immigrants.

• Workers Dangers:

  • Difficult terrains

  • Diseases

  • Extreme temperatures

  • Native American raids and lawlessness in pioneer towns

• Tracks merged at Promontory Summit, Utah, on May 10, 1869. Leland Stanford drove a golden spike marking completion.

• Soon, other transcontinental lines were constructed making travel across the continent faster and cheaper than by wagon

Economic Costs of Railroads:

• High operational costs:payments to tens of thousands of workers + purchasing tons of steel and wood materials.

• Government economic incentives: generous loans + land grants (640 acres per mile of track) totaling nearly 200 million acres.

• Railroad tycoon directors Cornelius Vanderbilt, James J. Hill, and Jay Gould profited immensely.

Freight Railroad Abuses:

• Companies kept rates secret → can charge one farmer more than another for the same freight transport.

• Railroads manipulated prices through pools, arrangements to keep rates above a certain level to reduce competition, harming the public.

• Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) established in 1887 as the nation's first regulatory agency to oversee the rail industry.

• However, the ICC's impact was limited until the early 20th century due to inconcise wording in its legislation.

Railroad Benefits:

• Business expansion for Eastern businesses able to sell goods to the West

• Increased access to goods at cheaper prices due to improved transportation

• Accelerated westward movement and Americans could more easily “go west.”

• Railroad network bound the nation together, facilitating an industrial revolution and nationwide growth.

New Attitudes Toward Wealth 💲

Emergence of a Wealthy Class:

• The new wealthy class in America was small but prominent, larger, and richer than any other class in American history.

• Questions arose about the factors leading to wealth: hard work and intelligence, inheritance, education and skill, or luck?

New Ideas and Philosophies:

• Social Darwinism: Originated from Charles Darwin's theory of "Survival of the Fittest" or Natural Selection

  • Social Darwinists led by Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner.

  • Believed success came to those with necessary skills/fittest (talent, intelligence, hard work) while poverty indicated lack of skills.

  • Opposed interventions like government handouts, safety regulations, and child labor laws so only the strongest would survive and reproduce.

• Gospel of Wealth: Similar to Social Darwinism however appealed to those who were religious as Darwinism was condemned by the Church

  • Supported by wealthy figures like Andrew Carnegie and John Rockefeller.

  • Believed God played a role in determining who receives the necessary skills to achieve success.

  • Advocated for philanthropy- sharing wealth for the public good.

• Algerism (Horatio Alger):

  • Alger wrote dime novels aimed at immigrants.

  • Stories centered on the idea of the "American Dream" – hard work combined with luck “pluck and luck” leads to success and wealth.

  • Typical story: A hardworking individual catches a lucky break, like saving a boss's daughter, leading to rapid ascent in social and economic status.

  • Alger's tales aligned with the beliefs of the masses, that anyone could achieve success in America through hard work and fortunate circumstances.

Politics of the Gilded Age 🤼

Overview:

• The Gilded Age was marked by significant achievements from American thinkers, inventors, entrepreneurs, writers, social justice promoters, etc. but saw minimal impact from politicians.

• The Presidency's influence was notably diminished, Congress was tainted with corruption, and much like colonial days Americans were not taking orders from the leaders but building up a new society on their own.

The Forgettable Presidents: Presidents from the end of the Civil War to the 1890s

• Andrew Johnson: Very hated; Faced impeachment and narrowly avoided removal from office.

• Ulysses S. Grant: Unprepared for governance, sought advice from corrupt advisors stealing public money. Crédit Mobilier Scandal that defrauded the public of common land.

• Rutherford B. Hayes: Won a close election considered to be a fraud by many, diminishing his legitimacy as President despite his personal integrity.

• James Garfield: Assassinated by Charles Guiteau 4 months into his term.

• Chester Arthur: Garfield’s VP, signed the Pendleton Civil Service Act that opened jobs via merit-based exam rather than policial connections → faced backlash by the Republican Party which refused his nomination for Presidency the following term.

Congressional Supremacy & Corruption:

• The Republican Party dominated both the Presidency and Congress for much of this era.

• Congressional members often aligned with corporate interests, leading to minimal campaign regulations and widespread corruption.

• City governments were controlled by political machines, where members of a small network maintained power, exploited the public treasury to amass wealth.

Gilded Age Economy

The Gilded Age in the United States, roughly spanning from the end of the Civil War to the early 20th century (approximately 1870 to 1900), was characterized by rapid economic growth, industrialization, and significant changes in the structure of the American economy. Here are key features of the economy during the Gilded Age:

1. Industrialization: The Gilded Age saw a profound shift from agrarian and craft-based economies to industrial and manufacturing-based economies. Industries such as steel, oil, railroads, and textiles experienced rapid growth, leading to the creation of large corporations and the expansion of urban centers.

2. Technological Advancements: Technological innovations, such as the Bessemer process for steel production, the telegraph, the telephone, and the expansion of the railroad network, played a crucial role in fostering economic development. These innovations improved efficiency, transportation, and communication.

3. Corporate Consolidation: The era was marked by the rise of powerful industrialists and corporate titans, often referred to as "robber barons" or "captains of industry." Figures like John D. Rockefeller in oil, Andrew Carnegie in steel, and J.P. Morgan in finance played dominant roles in their respective industries.

4. Monopolies and Trusts: Many industries experienced consolidation and the formation of monopolies or trusts. This concentration of economic power led to concerns about the influence these corporations had over markets, prices, and political processes. Trusts used to gain total control of an industry

5. Labor Force Changes: The industrial expansion attracted a large influx of rural Americans to urban areas in search of employment opportunities. However, the working conditions in factories and mines were often harsh, and labor movements emerged in response to demand better conditions, higher wages, and shorter working hours.

6. Agricultural Challenges: While industry boomed, agriculture faced challenges. Overproduction, falling crop prices, and the burden of debt on farmers contributed to economic difficulties in rural areas. The plight of farmers led to the formation of agrarian movements, such as the Farmers' Alliance and the Populist Party.

7. Gold Standard: The Gilded Age was characterized by debates over the monetary system. The Gold Standard Act of 1900 officially placed the United States on the gold standard, tying the value of the currency to a specific amount of gold.

8. Financial Panics: The economy experienced several financial panics and recessions during the Gilded Age, including the Panic of 1873, the Panic of 1893, and the Panic of 1907. These events reflected economic instability and challenges associated with the rapidly changing economic landscape.

9. Laissez-Faire Economics: The prevailing economic ideology during the Gilded Age was one of laissez-faire capitalism, emphasizing limited government intervention in economic affairs. This philosophy contributed to the minimal regulation of businesses and industries.

10. Social and Economic Inequality: The economic growth during the Gilded Age led to significant disparities in wealth and income. The era was marked by extreme wealth for some and widespread poverty for others, contributing to social tensions.

Laissez Faire

• Belief in minimal government involvement in economy

• Supported by industrialists and liberals during the Gilded Age

• Combined principles of social darwininsm and limited goverment

• Proponents of laissez-faire were especially concerned with “liberty of contract,” or the rights of businesses and workers to agree to a labor contract under any terms. The Supreme Court adopted this reasoning to overturn state laws that instituted minimum wages, maximum working hours, or safe working conditions.

• Liberals viewed attempts to improve social conditions through government initiatives as counterproductive. Arguing that federal assistance prevented African Americans in the South from achieving their potential through free competition, liberals played a key role in the Republican Party’s abandonment of Reconstruction in the late 1870s.

Williams Jenninh Bryan

1. Opposition to the Gold Standard: Bryan vehemently opposed the gold standard, which tied the value of the currency to a specific amount of gold. He argued that adhering to the gold standard favored the wealthy at the expense of the working class and farmers. Bryan believed that the limited money supply, tied to gold, contributed to deflation, making it harder for debtors, including farmers, to repay loans.

2. Advocacy for Bimetallism: Bryan called for the adoption of bimetallism, a system where both gold and silver would be used as a basis for the nation's currency. He famously declared, "You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold," emphasizing the metaphorical crucifixion of ordinary people by the gold standard.

3. Appeal to the Common People: Bryan's speech was a powerful appeal to the common people, particularly farmers and workers, who were grappling with economic challenges. He positioned himself as a champion of the "plain people" against the interests of the financial elite.

Grafts

Examples of graft include:

1. Bribery: Offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting something of value (such as money, gifts, or favors) with the intent to influence the actions or decisions of an official or other person in a position of power.

2. Nepotism: Favoritism shown to relatives or close friends, especially in granting them jobs or privileges, based on personal relationships rather than merit.

3. Embezzlement: The misappropriation or theft of funds entrusted to an individual, often in a position of financial responsibility, for personal use.

4. Kickbacks: Illicit payments made to someone in return for facilitating a transaction, contract, or business deal.

1. Political Machines: Urban political machines were prevalent during the Gilded Age, with Tammany Hall in New York City being one of the most infamous examples. These machines engaged in patronage, kickbacks, and bribery. Party bosses and political operatives exploited their control over city governments for personal gain, often at the expense of public funds.

2. Railroad Corruption: The expansion of the railroad industry during the Gilded Age brought about significant corruption. Railroad companies were accused of engaging in bribery to secure favorable legislation, subsidies, and land grants. The Credit Mobilier scandal in the 1870s involved the Union Pacific Railroad and revealed instances of stock manipulation and bribery.

3. Land Fraud: Graft and corruption were also associated with land speculation and fraud. The federal government's distribution of land grants and the manipulation of land prices led to various scandals, as individuals and companies sought to profit dishonestly from public lands.

4. Robber Barons: Certain powerful industrialists, often referred to as "robber barons," engaged in unethical business practices to amass wealth. This included forming monopolies or trusts, exploiting workers, and engaging in anti-competitive behavior.

Patrongage

1. Spoils System: The spoils system, a form of patronage, was prevalent in the Gilded Age. It involved rewarding political supporters with government positions and contracts after a successful election. The idea was that the "spoils" of victory should go to the winning party.

2. Political Machines: Urban political machines, such as Tammany Hall in New York City and the Pendergast machine in Kansas City, were known for using patronage to maintain control over local politics. Party bosses and leaders used the distribution of jobs and services to build and secure a loyal voter base.

3. Corruption and Nepotism: Patronage often led to corruption and nepotism, as political leaders appointed friends, family members, and loyal supporters to key government positions, regardless of their qualifications. This practice contributed to inefficiency and a lack of accountability in government.

4. Civil Service Reform: As the negative consequences of patronage became more apparent, there was a growing call for civil service reform to professionalize government employment and reduce the influence of political patronage. The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 was a significant step in this direction, establishing a merit-based system for federal government employment.

5. Pendleton Act: The Pendleton Act marked a shift away from the spoils system by introducing competitive exams for certain government positions. It aimed to ensure that appointments were based on merit rather than political connections. The act was a response to growing public dissatisfaction with the corruption associated with patronage.

Religious Revival: The Social Gospel ✝

Declining Protestant Influence:

• Urbanization and industrialization led to declining attendance in traditional Protestant churches, particularly among working-class individuals.

• The influx of immigrants, mainly Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and Jews, contributed to the growth of non-Protestant religious institutions.

The Emergence of the Social Gospel Movement:

• Responding to these challenges, progressive-minded Protestant ministers initiated the Social Gospel Movement, linking Christian teachings with contemporary societal issues.

• The movement advocated for addressing poverty, with prominent figures like Washington Gladden supporting improving working conditions through strikes, ending child labor, temperance laws, and civil service reform.

• Liberal churches, including Congregationalists and Unitarians, were at the forefront of the movement.

• Middle-class women became actively involved in social reform efforts.

Urban Revivalist Preachers and New Religious Movements:

• Urban areas witnessed a resurgence of religious fervor led by revivalist preachers like Dwight Lyman Moody, who attracted massive crowds with his fiery oratory.

• Organizations such as the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) and the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA) emerged to address challenges with the urban youth.

• New religious denominations and movements: The Christian Science founded by Mary Baker Eddy preached that faith was a means to cure disease and the Salvation Army originating from England provided free soup.

The Third Great Awakening:

• Historians identify this period as the Third Great Awakening in American religious history, characterized by revivalism, reform, and the intertwining of faith and social activism.

• Unlike previous awakenings, this movement was significantly influenced by urban realities, reflecting the impact of American cities.

1. 13th Amendment (1865):

   • Text: "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction."

   • Significance: The 13th Amendment abolished slavery in the United States, ensuring that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude" would be permitted.

2. 14th Amendment (1868):

   • Text, Section 1: "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."

   • Significance: The 14th Amendment granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including former slaves. It also aimed to provide equal protection under the law.

3. 15th Amendment (1870):

   • Text: "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

   • Significance: The 15th Amendment prohibited the denial of voting rights based on race, color, or previous servitude. It sought to protect the voting rights of African American men.