Anatomy & Physiology

Circulatory System: Red Blood Cells

Red Blood Cells - carry oxygen and nutrients throughout the body; structure allows it to grab onto iron and oxygen for transport.

Functions of the spleen:

• filters the blood

• removes old blood cells

• recycles iron

• makes antibodies

Arteries that supply blood to the spleen:

• aorta

• aeliac

• spenic

Phlebotomist - person trained to draw blood from a patient

Cooley’s anemia - inherited disorder that interferes with the blood’s ability to carry oxygen; typical for the cells to appear faded (hypochromia)

Blood is a type of CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• cells (rbc, wbc, platelets) = 45%

• plasma (water, proteins, amino acids) = 55%

Hematocrit - the percentage of blood & plasma

• blood cells = 45%

• fluid (plasma) = 55%

Three Types of Blood Cells

• erythrocytes = red blood cells

• leukocytes = white blood cells

• thrombocytes = platelets

Red Blood Cells - made from a protein called hemoglobin (Hb) which contains iron used to transport oxygen.

• Shape = biconcave discs

• 5 million per cubic millimeter (drop)

• contain no nuclei

Person with a low amount of iron in their diet has iron-deficient anemia.

Hematopoiesis - formation of blood cells

• occurs in the bone marrow

• an error in the genetic code can cause the protein to be abnormally shaped

Erythropoietin (EPO) - a hormone that increases the production of red blood cells

Oxyhemoglobin - plenty of oxygen; “bright red”
Deoxyhemoglobin - low in oxygen; “dark red”

Blood delivers oxygen to tissues and then returns to the heart through veins. The heart sends blood to lungs where it is oxygenated and sent to tissue via arteries. Veins and arteries meet at tiny vessels called capillaries which deliver to tissues.

Sickle Cell Disease

Caused by:

• genetic mutation in the DNA code

• incorrect formation of the hemoglobin protein

• cells are abnormally shaped

• cannot carry oxygen efficiently

Symptoms:

• splenomegaly

• fatigue/weakness

• pain crisis

• strokes

• shortness of breath

The Nervous System MS (A) - Nerves

The nervous system includes

• the brain

• spinal cord

• the nerves

The nervous system - coordinate the body’s systems by receiving and sending information; maintaining homeostasis

• Sensory - receives information

• Integrative - determines where information is sent

• Motor - responds to signals

Central Nervous System (CNS)

• brain

• spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves throughout the body

• 31 pairs of spinal nerves

• 12 pairs of cranial nerves

Somatic Nervous System

• skeletal

• voluntary

Autonomic Nervous System

• smooth muscles

• glands

• involuntary

Parasympathetic (rest and digest)
Sympathetic (fight or flight)

Neurons - masses of nerve cells that transmit information (functional unit of the nervous system)

1. Cell Body - contains the nucleus and other cell organelles

2. Dendrites - shorter, more numerous, receive information

3. Axons - single long fibers, conducts information away from the cell

4. Chromatophilic substance (rough ER) - transport system

5. Myelin - insulation surrounding axons

6. Nodes of Ranvier - gaps in the insulation

Neuroglial Cells - support for neurons
Microglial Cells - immune function; digest debris, kills bacteria
Oligodendrocytes - make myelin sheath that provides insulation around the axons
Astrocytes - connect blood vessels to neurons
Ependymal Cells - forms membranes around tissue
Schwann cells - form the insulating myelin sheath around the neurons in PNS (same function as oligodendrocytes)

Myelin Sheaths - insulate axons
Schwann cells supply the myelin for peripheral neurons while oligodendrocytes myelinate the axons of the central nervous system

Gaps in the sheath are called NODES OF RANVIER

As the neurons lose their myelin, the nerves are unable to send or receive signals.

Myelinated (white matter) - myelinated axons
Unmyelinated (grey matter) - unmyelinated

Lesions are evidence of nerve cell damage in your brain or spinal cord

• lesions on the spinal cord may cause motor problems

• lesions on the back of the brain may cause balance problems

Facts about neurons

• Longevity - can live and function for a lifetime

• Do not divide - fetal neurons lose their ability to undergo mitosisl neural stem cells are an exception

• High metabolic rate - require abundant oxygen and glucose

Nerve impulses - wake electric current, like a wave

1. neuron membrane maintains resting potential

2. threshold stimulus is received

3. sodium channels open

4. sodium ions diffuse inward, depolarizing the membrane

5. potassium channels open

6. potassium ions diffuse outward, repolarizing the membrane

7. the resulting action potential causes a local bioelectric current that stimulates the membrane

8. Wave of action potentials travel the length of the axon as a nerve impulse

Depolarization - loss of the difference in charge between the inside and outside of the plasma membrane of a muscle or nerve cell due to a change in permeability and migration of sodium ions to the interior

Nerve impulse - speed is proportional to the size of the axon

greater diameter = faster impulse

Myelinated axons conduct impulses faster than unmyelinated one

Communication between neurons

Synapse - function between two communicating neurons

Nerve pathway - nerve impulse travels from neuron to neuron

Dendrite → cell body → along axon → synapse (gap) → dendrite

To complete the signals, a neurotransmitter is released at the gap to signal the next neuron; receptors on the dendrite receive the chemical message

Types of neurotransmitters

Excitatory - increase membrane permeability, increases chance for threshold to be achieved

Inhibitory - decrease membrane permeability, decrease chance for threshold to be achieved

Examples of neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine - stimulates muscle contraction

Dopamine - mood, happiness

Serotonin - sleepiness and mood

Endorphins - pain reduction, mood

Agonist - molecule that has the same effect on the postsynaptic neuron as the neurotransmitter itself does

Antagonist - molecule that blocks the effect that neurotransmitter normally has on the postsynaptic neuron

Antidepressants

example: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

Cocaine - it attaches to the dopamine transporter and blocks the normal recycling process, resulting in a buildup of dopamine in the synapse, which contributes to the pleasurable effects of cocaine

Ecstasy - takes the upkeep transporters and reveres their roles; this causes a massive flood of serotonin from the brain cells into the synapse

Heroin - activates opiate receptors; blocks release of GABA, and thus more dopamine is released

Amphetamines - mimics dopamine; binding to receptors; dopamine does not re-enter the cell, depleting the cell’s supply

Disorders Related to Neuron

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) - progressive degeneration of nerve cells in the spinal cord and brain

Neurodegenerative - symptoms will get worse over time

Epilepsy - caused by excessive electrical activity within networks of neurons in the brain; a fine balance between excitation and inhibition must be maintained in order for the brain to function normally; if there is too much glutamate, neurons can become hyperexcitable and a seizure may result; too little GABA (inhibitory) can also result in a seizure.

Myasthenia Gravis - autoimmune disorder in which antibodies destroy neuromuscular connections

Nervous System (B) - Brain

The meninges - membranes located between bone and soft tissues

Meningitis - can be bacterial of viral

• fever

• stiff neck

• photosensitive

• vomiting

• rash

There is a vaccine!

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) - a clear liquid that bathes the brain and spinal cord; cushions the bran and serves as a shock absorber

Subdural hematoma - associated with traumatic brain injury; bleeding within the brain; puts pressure on the brain and can be life threatening

Spinal cord passes down the vertebral canal, has 31 segments (each with a pair of spinal nerves)

Locations:
C1 - C8
T1 - T12
L1 - L5

3 major parts of The Brain

• cerebrum

• brain stem

• cerebellum

Cerebrum - wrinkly large part of the brain (cerebral cortex); higher mental function, solving problems

Cerebellum - balance and coordination; white matter within the cerebellum give it a tree-like appearance, this is called the arbor vitae (“tree of life”)

Brain stem - regulates visceral functions (autonomic system)

Cerebral hemispheres - left and right side separated by the corpus callosum - connects the two hemispeheres

Brain convolutions - the wrinkles and grooves of the cerebrum

Fissues - deep groove

Sulcus - shallow grooce

Gyrus - bump

Frontal lobe - executive functions

Parietal lobe - perception, sense-making, math

Occipital lobe - vision

Temporal lobe - memory, language

Longitudinal fissue - separate right and left sides

Transverse fissue - separates cerebrum and cerebellum

Ventricles of the brain - fluid filled cavities, contain CSF

Association areas - interpreting and analyzing information

Diencephalon has 2 parts…

• Hypothalamus - hormones, heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, hunger, attaches to pituitary

• Thalamus - relay station

Optic tract / chiasma - optic nerves cross over each other

THE LEFT SIDE OF THE BRAIN CONTROLS THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE BODY

Midbrain - visual reflexes, eye movements

Pons - relay sensory information

Medulla - heart respiration, blood pressure

Pituitary gland - the “master gland” of the endocrine system; controls hormones

Hippocampus - (“sea horse”) storage and retrieval of memories

Amygdala - storage of memories associated with emotion

• also associated with fear response and aggression

The limbic system

• hypothalamus

• hippocampus

• amygdala

has a role in emotions

Peripheral Nervous System and Cranial Nerves

Peripheral nervous system - consists of the nerves that branch out from the CNS and connect it to other body parts, also includes the cranial nerves

Somatic nervous system - (conscious activities) skin, skeletal system

Autonomic nervous system - (unconscious activities) heart, viscera, glands

Peripheral nervous system - the spinal nerves comes out of the spine, and the cranial nerves come out of the brain directly

• there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves

• they are numbered with roman numerals

I. Olfactory - sense of SMELL; outside of the CNS, they are called olfactory nerves, and inside of the CNS, they are called the olfactory tract

II. Optic nerve - transmits information from the eye’s retina; VISION

III. Oculomotor nerve - controls most of the muscles of the eye that MOVES THE EYEBALL

IV. Trochlear nerve - innervates an extrinsic EYE MUSCLE, EYELID

V. Trigeminal nerve - the main SENSORY NERVE OF THE FACE; it has a large branch that passes through the foramen of the skull; it has 3

VI. Abducens - CONTROLS ONE OF THE EYE MUSCLES (lateral rectus)

VII. Facial nerve - innervates the muscle of FACIAL EXPRESSION

• a person who cannot blink or smile may have damage to this nerve

• Bell’s palsy is damage of the facial nerve causing paralysis on one side

VIII. Vestibulocochlear - hearing and balance (also called Auditory nerve)

IX. Glossopharyngeal - pharynx, tongue; SWALLOWING, speech, saliva

X. Vagus nerve - (vagrant = “wanders”) the only cranial nerve that travels into the abdomen

• this is the most important cranial nerve because it innervates all of the organs in the thoracic and abdominal

XI. Accessory nerve - supplies the SHOULDER muscles

• enters the skull through the foramen magnum

XII. Hypoglossal nerve - supplies the TONGUE

• damage causes impairment of speech

On Old Olympus Towering Top A Fin And German Viewed A Hop

Spinal Nerves - 31 total

8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1 - C8)
12 pairs of thoracic nerves (T1 - T12)
5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1 - L5)
5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1 -S5)
1 pair of coccygeal nerves (Co)

*Spinal cords ends at the level between the 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae

*The lumbar, sacral, coccygeal nerves descend from the end of the cord - CAUDA EQUINA (horse’s tail)

Each nerve emerges from the spinal cord at points called ROOTS

• Dorsal root ganglion

• Ventral root ganglion

Main portions of the spinal nerves combine to form complex networks called PLEXUSES

1. Cervical Plexus - neck

2. Brachial Plexus - shoulders, arms, hands

3. Lumbosacral Plexus

   • Obturator nerve - obturator

   • Sciatic - lower spine to buttocks (largest nerve)

   • Femoral - femur, knee

Autonomic nervous system

• Sympathetic - “fight or flight;” energy, high stress, emergency

• Parasympathetic - “resting;” resting, normal

Divisions act antagonistically - one is excitatory, other inhibits

The Senses

Synesthesia is the perceptual phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway

General senses - receptors found throughout the body, including joints and organs

Special senses - specialized receptors found in the head (eyes, ears, mouth)

Sensations & Receptors

Sensation - feeling that occurs when a brain interprets and sensory nerve impulse

Projection - the brain causes a feeling to stem from a source

Sensory adaption - sensory receptors stop sending signals when they are repeatedly stimulated

Sensory deprivation - a technique initially used by neuropsychiatrists designed to deliberately reduce or completely remove stimuli from one or all of the senses

Receptor cells in the PNS are activated by stimuli in the environment

Receptor cells can be classified into types on the basis of three different criteria

• cell type

• position

• function

Structure receptor types

• Free nerve endings - dendrites embedded in tissue as receivers; respond to pain and temperature

• Encapsulated - embedded in connective tissue to increase sensitivity (pressure and touch)

• Specialized - receptors in the retina of the eye

Location-based receptor types

• Exteroreceptor - located near external environment (skin)

• Interoreceptor - interprets stimuli from internal organs

• Proprioreceptor - located near moving body parts, interprets position

Functional receptor types

• Chemoreceptor - chemicals, mostly found in nose/mouth

• Osmoreceptor - respond to solutes in body fluids

• Thermoreceptor - temperature

• Mechanoreceptor - pressure, vibration, body position

• Nocireceptor - pain (chemicals released when tissue is damaged

Sense of pain

• Visceral pain - occurs in visceral tissues such as heart, lungs, intestine

• Referred pain - feels as though it is coming from a different part (heart pain may be felt as pain in arm or shoulder)

• Acute pain - originates from skin, usually stops when stimulus stops (needle prick)

• Chronic pain - dull aching sensation

Measuring pain in babies and young children - face, legs, activity, cry, consolability scale (FLACC scale)

An overview of how opioids work to block pain and why they become less effective the longer you use them

1. nerve sends signal

2. opioids slow/block signal

3. limbic system (emotions) and reward pathway are stimulated

Special sense

• olfactory - smell

• gustatory - taste

• hearing & equilibrium

• sight

Sense of smell (olfactory)

odor → receptor cell → olfactory bulb → olfactory tract → limbic system

Sense of taste (gustatory)

Taste buds are found on papillae; some papillae do not have taste buds

Taste senstaions

• sweet

• sour

• bitter

• salty

• savory (umami) - a savory taste, is one of the five basic tastes, together with sweet, sour, bitter, and salty; a loanword from the Japanese umami can be translated “pleasant savory taste"

Sense of hearing

External ear

Auricle (pinna) - outer ear

Auditory canal (external auditory meatus) - opening to the eardrum

A group of muscles called the auriculares are responsible for this movement

Ear wigging is considered a vestigial trait - a trait that no longer function but is part of our evolutionary past

Middle ear (tympanic cavity)

Eardrum (tympanum)

Auditory ossicles - malleus, incus, stapes; transmit vibrations and amplify the signal

Auditory tube (eustachian tube) - connects the middle ear to the throat; helps maintain air pressue

Inner ear

Labyrinth - communicating chambers and tubes

Semicircular canals - sense of equilibrium

Cochlea - sense or hearing

Organ of Corti - contains hearing receptors, hair cells detect vibrations

Why do we lose our hearing?
Inside the cochlea are special neurons called hair cells; loud noises damage these fibers

Steps in hearing

1. Sound waves enter external auditory canal

2. Eardrum vibrates

3. Auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) amplify vibrations

4. Stapes hits oval window and transmits vibrations to cochlea

5. Organs of corti contain receptor cells (hair cells) that deform from vibrations

6. Impulses sent to the vestibulocochlear nerve

7. Auditory cortex of the temporal lobe interprets sensory impulses

8. Round window dissipates vibrations within the cochlea

Cochlear implants - receives sound from the outside environment, processes it, and sends small electric currents near the auditory nerve; the brain learns to recognize this signal and the person experiences this as “hearing”

Sense of equilibrium

Static equilibrium - maintain stability and posture

Dynamic equilibrium - balance during sudden movement

Cerebellum - interprets impulses from the semicircular canals and maintains overall balance

Otolaryngology - physicians trained in the medical and surgical management and treatment of patients with diseases and disorders of the ear, nose, throat (ENT), and related structures of the head and neck; they are commonly referred to as ENT physicians

Disorders of sensory systems

1. Synethesia

2. Anosmia

3. Tinnitus

4. Anhidrosis (inability to sweat)

5. Congenital analgesia (CIP)

Mutations in genes prevents nerve impulsves from pain receptors (nociceptors) from sending signals to the brain.

Hereditary (Congenital) Deafness - occurs in 1 of every 1000 to 2000 newborns

syndromic → pendred syndrome → usher syndrome

Syndrome - a disease that has more than one feature or symptom; a person with usher syndrome also has vision problems

Deafness can also be caused by prenatal infections from “ToRCH” organisms

• toxoplasmosis

• rubella

• cytomegalovirus (CMV)

• herpes

Postnatal infections can also cause deafness

• meningitis

• streptococcus

• listeria

• influenza

Presbycusis - age related hearing loss

• dimished hearing sensitivity

• poor speech comprehension in noisy environments

• slowed central processing of acoustic information

• high frequencies are more difficult to hear

Careers related to hearing

• audiologist

• speech-language pathologist

• sign language interpreter

• teacher: deaf & hearing imparied

The Eyes

Vision tests

1. response to light

2. pupil response

3. ability to follow a target

4. ability to navigate obstacles

Structure of the eye & accessory organs

Eyelid - covers and protects the eye, thin skin

*Skill will not protect you from intense radiation, that’s why we use special goggles in tanning bed

Eyelashes - fine hairs that function to protect the eyes from dust and debris

Conjunctiva - covering around the eye and under the eyelids

Pink eye - also known as CONJUNCTIVITIS (from bacteria, very contagious)

Extrinsic eye muscle - move the eye

Lacrimal glands - produce tears, which drain into the nasal cavity via the LACRIMAL DUCT

Tears - moisten and lubricate the eye surface, and it has enzymes that kill bacteria

Outer tunic of the eye

Cornea - transparent dome that focuses light

Sclera - continuation of cornea, going toward the back of the eye (white of the eye)

Optic nerve - exits at optic disk and transmits information from the eye to occipital lobe of the brain

Middle tunic of the eye

Choroid - contains blood vessels

Ciliary body - holds the lens in place

Lens - focusing

Iris - colored portion of the eye

Pupil - opening for light to enter; dilate or constrict to adjust light entering eye

Aqueous humor - liquid surrounding the lens

Eye color

Melanin - a brownish pigment that adds color to your hair, eyes, and skin

Heterochromia - one eye is different color than the other

Inner tunic

Retina - visual receptor cells; has PHOTORECEPTORS, which are sensors for light

Fovea centralis - region of the sharpest vision, also called the macula

Optic disc - where nerve fibers leave the eye, creating the blind spot

Vitreous humor - supports internal parts, fluid within the eye

The region where the optic nerve and blood vessels goes in and out of the eye has no photoreceptors = BLIND SPOT

Rods - monochromatic (b&w)

Cones - color vision

ROYGBIV!

How does the eye work?

Accommodation - lens change shape to facilitate focusing

Images are then projected to the back of the eye (focal points), the lens reverse the image (objects are seen upside down)

Zonules of Zinn

• connect ciliary body to lens

• can change the shape of the lens

• also called suspensory ligaments

Information from retina passes through the optic nerve, crosses at the chiasma, and is sent to the occipital lobe of the brain; the brain is responsible for interpreting those images

Problems with the eyes

Cataracts - clouding of the lens leads to a clinical condition (cataracts)
Treatment is to remove the lens and replace it with an artificial one called an intraocular lens

Problems with the iris and pupil - function is to constrict or dilate the pupil (opening) to allow light in; therefore, it regulates the amount of light passing to the visual receptors of the eye

Aniridia - a condition where a person is born without an iris

Onchocerciasis - (river blindness) a disease caused by infection by a parasitic worm; symptoms include severe itching, bumps under the skin, and blindness

Color blindness - a genetic trait that affects boys more than girls; the location of the gene is on the X chromosome

Floaters - occur when the vitreous substance clumps and casts shadows on the retina; floaters don’t actually move, the eye just tries to track them

Retinal detachment - occurs when the retina is pulled away from its normal position; blindness can occur if it is not treated right away; symptoms include flashing lights, new floaters, a shadow in the periphery of your field of vision, a gray curtain moving across your field of vision

Glaucoma - pressure from vitreous humor damages the optic nerve and can lead to blindness; can be managed with medication

Hyperopia - farsightedness; you can see distant objects fine, but close objects appear blurry

Presbyopia - the loss of ability to see close objects or small print, age-related

Myopia - nearsightedness; you can see near objects, fine, but distance objects appear blurry

Astigmatism - where the cornea has an irregular shape; part of field of view is out of focus

Most visions problems are treated with glasses or contact lenses; both change the focal point of the light entering the eye; surgery is also a option + gene therapy

Endocrine System

1. made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones, chemical messengers

2. regulation of growth, metabolism, sexual development

3. responses to stress and injury

4. maintains homeostasis

BIG IDEA: HORMONES ARE CHEMICAL MESSENGERS THAT ACT ON TARGET CELLS

Major structures of the endocrine system

Endocrine - secretions inside the body

Exocrine - secretions outside the body (sweat)

Control of hormones

Negative feedback system - when the levels go above or below a SET POINT, the endocrine system secretes hormones to lower or raise the level; think of it like a thermostat

Example of negative feedback:

Calcium regulation by the thyroid/parathyroid

Glucose levels rise - insulin is produced to cause sugar to be taken up by the cells (and out of the blood)

Positive feedback system - ex. contractions during labor
Pituitary gland - located below the brain

Hormone control

The pituitary is often called the “master gland” because it controls all of the other glands

Its actions are controlled by the hypothalamus in the brain

Anterior pituitary hormones

Prolactin or PRL- PRL stimulates milk production from a woman’s breasts after childbirth and can affect sex hormone levels from the ovaries in women and the testes in men

Growth hormone or GH - GH stimulates growth in childhood and is important for maintaining a healthy body composition; in adults, it is also important for maintaining muscle mass and bone mass; can affect fat distribution in the body

Myostatin - inhibits muscle growth

Myostatin inhibitor drugs are being developed with the intent of treating muscle-wasting diseases like muscular dystrophy in humans

Problems with the pituitary gland can result in dwarfism or a person can grow too much

Adrenocorticotropin or ACTH - ACTH stimulates production of cortisol by the adrenal glands

Cortisol, a so-called “stress hormone, is vital to surivial; it helps maintain blood pressure and glucose levels

Thyroid-stimulating hormone or TSH - TSH stimulates the thryoid gland to make thyroid hormones, which, in turn, control (regulate) the body’s metabolism, energy, growth and development, and nervous system activity

Luteinizing hormone or LH - regulates testosterone in men and estrogen in women

Follicle-stimulating hormone or FSH - FSH promotes sperm production in men and stimulates the ovaries to release eggs in women; LH and FSH work together to allow normal function of the ovaries or testes

Posterior pituitary hormone

1. made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones, chemical messengers

2. regulation of growth, metabolism, sexual development

3. responses to stress and injury

4. maintains homeostasis

BIG IDEA: HORMONES ARE CHEMICAL MESSENGERS THAT ACT ON TARGET CELLS

Major structures of the endocrine system

Endocrine - secretions inside the body

Exocrine - secretions outside the body (sweat)

Control of hormones

Negative feedback system - when the levels go above or below a SET POINT, the endocrine system secretes hormones to lower or raise the level; think of it like a thermostat

Example of negative feedback:

Calcium regulation by the thyroid/parathyroid

Glucose levels rise - insulin is produced to cause sugar to be taken up by the cells (and out of the blood)

Positive feedback system - ex. contractions during labor
Pituitary gland - located below the brain

Hormone control

The pituitary is often called the “master gland” because it controls all of the other glands

Its actions are controlled by the hypothalamus in the brain

Anterior pituitary hormones

Prolactin or PRL- PRL stimulates milk production from a woman’s breasts after childbirth and can affect sex hormone levels from the ovaries in women and the testes in men

Growth hormone or GH - GH stimulates growth in childhood and is important for maintaining a healthy body composition; in adults, it is also important for maintaining muscle mass and bone mass; can affect fat distribution in the body

Myostatin - inhibits muscle growth

Myostatin inhibitor drugs are being developed with the intent of treating muscle-wasting diseases like muscular dystrophy in humans

Problems with the pituitary gland can result in dwarfism or a person can grow too much

Adrenocorticotropin or ACTH - ACTH stimulates production of cortisol by the adrenal glands

Oxytocin - oxytocin causes milk letdown in nursing mothers and contractions during childbirth

Pitocin - synthetic form of oxytocin; generally used in two ways 1. to induce labor, and 2. to augment (speed up) labor

Antidiuretic hormone or ADH - ADH, also called, vasopressin, is stored in the back part of the pituitary gland and regulates water balance

Diuretics - increase urine production

Thyroid gland - controls your metabolism which is the body’s ability to break down food and store it as energy and release of energy

Thyroid hormones

Thyroxin (T4) & Tri-iodothyronine (T3) - both increase the rate at which cells release energy from carbohydrates

Calcitonin - regulates the blood concentration of calcium

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) - how many calories the body must consume to maintain life

Problems with the Thyroid

Iodine is essential for the formation of thyroxine

Lack of iodine causes a swelling of the thyroid → GOITER

Parathyroid glands - located behind the thyroid, four tiny glands

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) - takes calcium from the bones to make it available in the blood

Adrenal glands - located at the top of the kidneys; produce adrenaline

Adrenal cortex - outer area

Aldosterone - helps kidneys conserve sodium and excrete potassium, maintaining blood pressure

Cortisol - keeps blood glucose levels stable, response to stress

Adrenal sex hormones - androgens (male) and estrogens (female)

Adrenal medulla - inner area

Epinephrine & norepinephrine - increased heart rate, breathing rate, elevated blood pressure (fight or flight, response to stress)

Adrenal gland disorders

Cushing’s disease - hyperadrenocorticism; happens when the adrenal glands make too much cortisol

• increased thirst and urination

• increased hunger

• increased panting

• pot-bellied abdomen

• obesity

• loss of hair

Addison’s disease

• hyposecretion of cortisol

• low blood pressure results

• increased pigmentation

Pancreas - a large gland behind the stomach that hel0ps the body to maintain healthy blood (glucose) levels; contains islands of cells called the islets of langerhans which secret glucagon and insulin

Glucagon - stimulates the liver to break down glycogen, raises blood sugar

Insulin - decreases blood sugar concentrations, affects the uptake of glucose by cells

Both hormones work together to maintain a balance in the blood sugar

Diabetes Mellitus - results from an insulin deficiency, blood sugar rises (hyperglycemia) and excess is excreted in the urine

Type I - insulin dependent diabetes mellitus or juvenile onset diabetes, often caused by inherited immune disorder that destroys pancreatic cells

Type II - mature onset diabetes (usually after the age of 40), often individuals are overweight, can be controlled with diet and exercise

Hypoglycemia - can occur if levels become too low, can be cured with direct injection of glucose or with eating something high in sugar; this is why diabetes often have candy

Diabetes insipidus - an uncommon condition that occurs when the kidneys are unable to conserve water as they perform their function of filtering blood

The amount of water conserved is controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also called vasopressin

ADH - a hormone produced in a region of the brain called the hypothalamus

Gestational diabetes - pregnancy hormones can blood insulin from doing its job; when this happens, glucose levels may increase in a pregnant woman’s blood

Diabetic neuropathies are a family of nerve disorders caused by diabetes; people with diabetes can develop nerve damage throughout the body; symptoms include pain, tingling, or numbness in the hands, arms, feet, and legs; this can result in wounds that are slow to heal

Other endocrine glands

Pineal gland - located between the cerebral hemispheres; secretes melatonin & maintains circadian rhythms

Thymus gland - large in young children, gradually shrinks with age, secretes thymosins, important to immune function

Reproductive glands - testes and ovaries, testosterone, progesterone, estrogen

Gonadotropins - include any hormone that affect the gonads

White Blood Cells