Chapter 17: Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy, 1841-1848
The Accession of "Tyler Too"
Territorial expansion became a major focus of American diplomacy and politics in the 1840s.
Expansionist pressure led to disputes over Oregon with Britain and Texas with Mexico.
The annexation of Texas and coveting of California led to open warfare with Mexico.
Victory in the Mexican War added vast new territories to the United States.
Acquisition of new land raised questions about the expansion of slavery, which contributed to the Civil War.
President Harrison's election in 1841 brought a flood of office seekers. Harrison died of pneumonia after only four weeks in office.
John Tyler, Harrison's vice president, became president.
Tyler was a Virginia gentleman, principled but stubborn.
He had formerly been a Jacksonian Democrat but joined the Whigs due to disagreements with Jackson's policies.
Tyler was accused of being a Democrat in Whig clothing because he often opposed the Whig party's agenda.
John Tyler: A President Without a Party
Whigs aimed for a nationalistic program but Tyler opposed it.
The Whig Congress passed a law ending the independent treasury system, which Tyler signed.
Clay proposed a “Fiscal Bank,” but Tyler vetoed it based on practical and constitutional concerns.
Whigs then proposed a “Fiscal Corporation”, which Tyler also vetoed.
Whig extremists labeled Tyler “His Accidency” and “Executive Ass”.
Tyler was formally expelled from the Whig party, and impeachment was considered.
His entire cabinet resigned, except for Secretary of State Webster, who was in negotiations with England.
Tyler vetoed the Whig tariff due to its provision for distributing revenue from public land sales to the states.
Clayites revised the tariff bill, removing the distribution scheme and lowering rates to 32%.
Tyler reluctantly signed the Tariff of 1842 due to the need for revenue.
A War of Words with Britain
Hatred of Britain peaked periodically in the 19th century.
Anti-British sentiment stemmed from memories of the Anglo-American wars.
Federalists' pro-British sentiments waned, replaced by Jacksonian Democrats.
British travelers criticized American customs, such as tobacco spitting and slave auctioneering.
British magazines attacked American shortcomings, leading to a "Third War with England" fought with paper.
British authors like Charles Dickens criticized the lack of American copyright law.
America borrowed heavily from Britain for infrastructure projects.
Several states defaulted on British loans after the Panic of 1837, leading to English criticism.
A short-lived insurrection in Canada in 1837 was supported by some Americans.
The American steamer Caroline was attacked by British forces while supplying Canadian insurgents and set ablaze.
In 1840, a Canadian named McLeod was arrested and indicted for murder in New York for his role in the Caroline raid; his execution would have meant war.
Tensions rose again in 1841 when British officials in the Bahamas offered asylum to rebelling Virginia slaves who had captured the ship Creole.
Manipulating the Maine Maps
The British wanted to build a road from Halifax to Québec for defensive purposes.
The proposed route ran through disputed territory claimed by Maine, leading to the Aroostook War, a lumberjack clash.
In 1842, Lord Ashburton was sent to Washington as a nonprofessional diplomat.
Ashburton and Webster compromised on the Maine boundary.
The Americans retained 7,000 square miles of the disputed wilderness, while the British got less land but secured the Halifax-Québec route.
The British surrendered 6,500 square miles in the west, which later contained the Mesabi iron ore of Minnesota.
The Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone
Texas faced threats from Mexico, which refused to recognize its independence.
Texas negotiated with Britain and France for protection.
Britain was interested in an independent Texas to check American expansion and create a free-trade area and reduce reliance on American cotton.
British abolitionists sought a foothold in Texas to potentially inflame Southern slaves.
The Belated Texas Nuptials
Texas became a key issue in the 1844 presidential campaign.
Democrats under James K. Polk favored expansion and triumphed over Whigs under Henry Clay.
President Tyler interpreted the Democratic victory as a mandate to acquire Texas.
Antislavery Whigs feared Texas as a new slave state.
Tyler arranged for annexation via a joint resolution, requiring a simple majority in both houses of Congress.
The resolution passed in 1845, inviting Texas to become the 28th state.
Mexico protested the annexation, but it was no longer in a position to reclaim Texas.
By 1845, Texas's independence was a danger, risking wars in America and Europe.
Oregon Fever Populates Oregon
The Oregon Country included land west of the Rockies to the Pacific, up to 54°40’.
The Oregon Country was claimed by Spain, Russia, Britain, and the United States.
Spain ceded its claims to the United States in the Florida Treaty of 1819.
Russia retreated to the 54°40’ line via treaties in 1824 and 1825.
British claims were based on discovery, treaty rights, and occupation, led by the Hudson’s Bay Company.
American claims were based on exploration and occupation, including Captain Robert Gray's discovery of the Columbia River and the Lewis and Clark expedition.
Missionaries and settlers in the Willamette Valley strengthened American claims.
By 1846, about five thousand Americans had settled south of the Columbia River.
The British had only about seven hundred subjects north of the Columbia.
The area in dispute was between the Columbia River and the 49th parallel.
Britain had offered the Columbia River line; America had offered the 49th parallel.
The issue was largely overshadowed by the question of annexing Texas in the 1844 election.
A Mandate (?) for Manifest Destiny
Henry Clay was nominated by the Whigs, while James K. Polk became the Democratic candidate.
Polk was the first “dark-horse” presidential candidate.
The campaign of 1844 was influenced by Manifest Destiny, the belief that America was destined to spread its democratic institutions.
Democrats called for the “Reannexation of Texas” and the “Reoccupation of Oregon” to 54°40’.
Clay tried to appeal to both sides on the Texas issue, alienating antislavery voters.
Polk won the election, and land-hungry Democrats believed they had a mandate to take Texas.
Tyler interpreted the victory as a clear charge to annex Texas.
Polk the Purposeful
Polk was a determined and hard-working public servant.
He had a four-point program and achieved it in less than four years.
One of Polk’s goals was a lowered tariff. The Walker Tariff of 1846 reduced rates from 32% to 25%.
The Walker Tariff of 1846 proved to be an excellent revenue producer.
A second goal was the restoration of the independent treasury, achieved in 1846.
The third and fourth goals were the acquisition of California and the settlement of the Oregon dispute.
Oregon Settlement
“Reoccupation” of the “whole” of Oregon had been promised northern Democrats.
Southern Democrats cooled off after Texas was annexed.
Polk proposed the compromise line of 49°.
The British initially rejected this proposal but later proposed the 49° line themselves.
The Senate accepted the offer and approved the subsequent treaty.
United States was then a month deep in war with Mexico, which influenced the Senate's vote.
Some Americans condemned the settlement as a betrayal by the South, as they had not gotten the full 54°40’.
Polk achieved a reasonable compromise without war.
Misunderstandings with Mexico
California was a worry for Polk, who coveted its valleys and the bay of San Francisco.
California's population in 1845 included Spanish Mexicans, dispirited Indians, and fewer than a thousand foreigners.
Polk was eager to buy California from Mexico, but relations were strained.
The United States had claims against Mexico for $3 million in damages.
Mexico denied the right of Texans to dispose of themselves as they chose.
Mexico recalled its minister from Washington after annexing the Lone Star Republic and diplomatic relations were severed.
Texans claimed the Rio Grande as their boundary, while Mexico claimed the Nueces River.
American Blood on American (?) Soil
Polk prepared for a showdown and ordered troops under General Zachary Taylor to the Rio Grande.
On April 25, 1846, Mexican troops attacked Taylor’s command, resulting in American casualties.
Polk sent a war message to Congress, stating that American blood had been shed on American soil.
Congress voted for war.
Abraham Lincoln introduced spot resolutions requesting information on the precise spot where American blood had been shed.
Polk wanted California, and Mexico would not sell it voluntarily.
Both sides were eager for a fight.
The Mastering of Mexico
Polk aimed for a limited war to capture California.
The plan to use Santa Anna to sell out his country backfired.
American operations in the Southwest and California were successful.
General Stephen W. Kearny captured Santa Fe.
Captain John C. Frémont helped overthrow Mexican rule in California.
General Zachary Taylor fought his way into Mexico and became the “Hero of Buena Vista”.
General Winfield Scott led the main expedition to Mexico City, capturing it in September of 1847.
Fighting Mexico for Peace
Polk wanted to end the war after achieving his territorial goals.
Negotiating a treaty was challenging but Nicholas P. Trist singed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848, and forwarded it to Washington.
The Peace Settlement with Mexico
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo confirmed American title to Texas and yielded the area westward to Oregon and the ocean, including California.
The United States paid $15 million for the land and assumed claims of its citizens against Mexico for $3,250,000.
The Senate approved the treaty despite opposition from both those who wanted all of Mexico and those who wanted none of it.
Polk paid $18,250,000 after winning the war, partly due to the need for haste.
Profit and Loss in Mexico
The Mexican War was small but had enormous consequences, as America's total expanse was increased by about one-third.
It stimulated Manifest Destiny.
The war provided field experience for officers who would later become Civil War generals.
The Military Academy at West Point and the Navy played crucial roles.
The war marked a turning point in relations between the United States and Latin America.
It also rearoused the slavery issue, leading to the Civil War.
Abolitionists saw the war as provoked by the “slavocracy.
The acquisition of new land after the Mexican War, particularly the vast territories gained from the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, reignited the contentious issue of slavery in the United States. The question of whether these new territories would be free or slave states led to significant political turmoil.
Key points regarding the specifics:
Wilmot Proviso: In 1846, Representative David Wilmot of Pennsylvania proposed the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. Although it never passed, the Proviso intensified the debate over slavery and sectional tensions.
Popular Sovereignty: As a compromise, the concept of popular sovereignty gained traction. This principle suggested that residents of each territory should decide for themselves whether to permit slavery. However, it led to conflict, such as in "Bleeding Kansas," where pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions violently clashed.
Compromise of 1850: This legislative package aimed to resolve disputes over slavery in the newly acquired territories. Key provisions included admitting California as a free state, organizing Utah and New Mexico with popular sovereignty, settling the Texas boundary dispute, and enacting a stricter Fugitive Slave Act. While it temporarily eased tensions, it ultimately failed to provide a lasting solution.
Kansas-Nebraska Act: Passed in 1854, this act further destabilized the situation by allowing popular sovereignty in the Kansas and Nebraska territories. This effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had prohibited slavery in those areas. Resulted in widespread violence and further divided the nation, contributing significantly to the outbreak of the Civil War.