Exam Review Notes

Nephron Function and Aldosterone

  • Glomerular filtration: Movement of materials out of the blood within the nephron.
  • Decreased levels of aldosterone result in low blood pressure.

Urinary System Anatomy

  • Ureter: Connects the kidney to the bladder.
  • Renal artery: Brings oxygenated blood to the kidneys.
  • Renal vein: Takes low-oxygenated blood away from the kidney.
  • Urethra: Allows urine to be passed from the bladder to the outside of the body.

Digestive System Overview

  • Small intestine is responsible for some digestive activity.
  • Digestion: Breaking down food into smaller components.

Hormonal Regulation and Kidney Function

  • Aldosterone/ADH: When this hormone is secreted, the kidneys increase water reabsorption.

Digestion Locations

  • The small intestines is largely responsible for the digestion of carbohydrates.
  • Pepsin: Enzyme that digests proteins into peptides.
  • Stomach: Responsible for the digestion of protein.

Urinary System Structures

  • Bladder: Organ that receives and stores urine.

Stomach Function

  • Stomach: Hydrochloric acid is secreted in large amounts once food enters this organ.

Accessory Digestive Organs

  • Gall bladder: Accessory organ that stores bile.

Stomach Emptying

  • Pyloric sphincter: Sphincter that controls the emptying of stomach contents into the small intestines.

Renin-Angiotensin System

  • Activation of the renin-angiotensin system results in increased fluid reabsorption.

Pancreatic Enzyme Secretion

  • Cholecystokinin (CCK): Hormone that stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes.

Sodium and Blood Pressure

  • A low sodium diet can cause low blood pressure.

pH Balance

  • Vomiting: Can cause an alkaline shift in pH.
  • Liver: Storage of fat is a function of this organ.
  • Sodium: Most abundant extracellular ion.
  • Buffer systems, respiration, and kidney function help the body maintain pH homeostasis.

Initial Digestion

  • Digestion begins in the mouth.

Kidney Anatomy

  • Renal capsule: Fibrous connective tissue membrane that encloses the kidney.

Lipase and Fatty Stools

  • Elevated lipase levels can manifest in a patient having fatty stools.

Embryonic Development

  • In the third week of gestation, the developing embryo forms the primitive nervous system.

Hormones in Pregnancy

  • Human chorionic gonadotropin: Hormone that is produced by the blastocyte soon after implantation.

Uterine Layers

  • Endometrium: Inner layer of the uterus.

Sperm Maturation

  • Sperm are produced in the testes but mature in the epididymis.

Ova Production

  • Ovaries: Where ova are produced.

Meiosis

  • During meiosis, four developing gametes are produced.

Testosterone Function

  • Testosterone is responsible for secondary characteristics sperm.

Reproductive Cycle

  • The ovum moves through the uterine tube to the uterus during the post ovulatory phase of the reproductive cycle.

Fertilization

  • The union of a sperm and ova results in a single cell called a Zygote.

Sperm Nourishment

  • Semen: Nourishes the spermatozoa.

Chromosomes

  • Sex chromosomes: The 23rd pair of chromosomes.

Genetic Prediction

  • Punnett Square: Used by geneticists to predict the likelihood of developing a dominant trait.

Gender Determination

  • Male gender is determined by the receipt of the Y chromosome from the father.

Blood Sugar and Milk

  • A glass of milk is a good choice for a patient with low blood sugar because it contains lactose.

Vitamin B1

  • Vitamin B1 is essential for nerve function.

Catabolism Definition

  • Catabolism: Digestion of food molecules into small.

Anaerobic Phase of Glucose Catabolism

  • The anaerobic phase of glucose catabolism occurs in the cytoplasm.

Heat Loss

  • When air currents move over the surface of the skin, heat loss occurs by the act of convection.

Sodium

  • Sodium is essential for fluid balance.

Foods High in Folic Acid

  • If leafy greens/liver: Food high in folic acid.

Cellular Catabolism Products

  • Foods high in potassium; cellular catabolism produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP), heat, water and CO_2 carbon dioxide.

Lowering Body Temperature

  • To lower body temperature, the body responds with vasodilation.