Exam Review Notes

Nephron Function and Aldosterone

• Glomerular filtration: Movement of materials out of the blood within the nephron.
• Decreased levels of aldosterone result in low blood pressure.

Urinary System Anatomy

• Ureter: Connects the kidney to the bladder.
• Renal artery: Brings oxygenated blood to the kidneys.
• Renal vein: Takes low-oxygenated blood away from the kidney.
• Urethra: Allows urine to be passed from the bladder to the outside of the body.

Digestive System Overview

• Small intestine is responsible for some digestive activity.
• Digestion: Breaking down food into smaller components.

Hormonal Regulation and Kidney Function

• Aldosterone/ADH: When this hormone is secreted, the kidneys increase water reabsorption.

Digestion Locations

• The small intestines is largely responsible for the digestion of carbohydrates.
• Pepsin: Enzyme that digests proteins into peptides.
• Stomach: Responsible for the digestion of protein.

Urinary System Structures

• Bladder: Organ that receives and stores urine.

Stomach Function

• Stomach: Hydrochloric acid is secreted in large amounts once food enters this organ.

Accessory Digestive Organs

• Gall bladder: Accessory organ that stores bile.

Stomach Emptying

• Pyloric sphincter: Sphincter that controls the emptying of stomach contents into the small intestines.

Renin-Angiotensin System

• Activation of the renin-angiotensin system results in increased fluid reabsorption.

Pancreatic Enzyme Secretion

• Cholecystokinin (CCK): Hormone that stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes.

Sodium and Blood Pressure

• A low sodium diet can cause low blood pressure.

pH Balance

• Vomiting: Can cause an alkaline shift in pH.
• Liver: Storage of fat is a function of this organ.
• Sodium: Most abundant extracellular ion.
• Buffer systems, respiration, and kidney function help the body maintain pH homeostasis.

Initial Digestion

• Digestion begins in the mouth.

Kidney Anatomy

• Renal capsule: Fibrous connective tissue membrane that encloses the kidney.

Lipase and Fatty Stools

• Elevated lipase levels can manifest in a patient having fatty stools.

Embryonic Development

• In the third week of gestation, the developing embryo forms the primitive nervous system.

Hormones in Pregnancy

• Human chorionic gonadotropin: Hormone that is produced by the blastocyte soon after implantation.

Uterine Layers

• Endometrium: Inner layer of the uterus.

Sperm Maturation

• Sperm are produced in the testes but mature in the epididymis.

Ova Production

• Ovaries: Where ova are produced.

Meiosis

• During meiosis, four developing gametes are produced.

Testosterone Function

• Testosterone is responsible for secondary characteristics sperm.

Reproductive Cycle

• The ovum moves through the uterine tube to the uterus during the post ovulatory phase of the reproductive cycle.

Fertilization

• The union of a sperm and ova results in a single cell called a Zygote.

Sperm Nourishment

• Semen: Nourishes the spermatozoa.

Chromosomes

• Sex chromosomes: The 23rd pair of chromosomes.

Genetic Prediction

• Punnett Square: Used by geneticists to predict the likelihood of developing a dominant trait.

Gender Determination

• Male gender is determined by the receipt of the Y chromosome from the father.

Blood Sugar and Milk

• A glass of milk is a good choice for a patient with low blood sugar because it contains lactose.

Vitamin B1

• Vitamin B1 is essential for nerve function.

Catabolism Definition

• Catabolism: Digestion of food molecules into small.

Anaerobic Phase of Glucose Catabolism

• The anaerobic phase of glucose catabolism occurs in the cytoplasm.

Heat Loss

• When air currents move over the surface of the skin, heat loss occurs by the act of convection.

Sodium

• Sodium is essential for fluid balance.

Foods High in Folic Acid

• If leafy greens/liver: Food high in folic acid.

Cellular Catabolism Products

• Foods high in potassium; cellular catabolism produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP), heat, water and CO_2 carbon dioxide.

Lowering Body Temperature

• To lower body temperature, the body responds with vasodilation.