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AP World History: Unit 2.2 - The Mongol Empire and the Modern World

The Mongol Empire and the Modern World

Introduction and Essential Question

  • Essential Question: How did Eurasian empires grow over time, and how did their expansion influence trade and communication?

  • The Mongols, originating from Central Asia, marched across much of Eurasia during the 13^{th} century, causing destruction and chaos.

  • Their reputation for slaughter preceded actual conquests, often exaggerated by writers like Matthew Paris from far-off locations (e.g., Benedictine abbey in England).

  • Despite their destructive nature, the Mongols inadvertently sparked a significant period of interregional connection and exchange, unprecedented in a thousand years.

The Mongols and Their Surroundings

  • Origin: In the 12^{th} century, Mongols were multiple clans of pastoral nomads.

  • Lifestyle: Herded goats and sheep, and were also hunter-foragers, located north of the Gobi Desert in East Asia.

  • Environment: Life on the arid Asian steppes was harsh, which profoundly shaped Mongol culture.

  • Cultural Values:

    • Every individual, male and female, was expected to be a skilled horse rider.

    • Courage in hunting and warfare was highly valued.

  • Neighbors: Surrounded by other tribes such as the Tatars, Naimans, Merkits, and the powerful Jurchen in northern China.

  • Motivation: Mongols coveted the relative wealth of tribes and kingdoms closer to the Silk Roads, which had easier access to luxury goods like silk clothing and gold jewelry.

Genghis Khan

Early Life and Rise to Power

  • Temujin: Born in 1162, he spent early decades forging tribal alliances and defeating neighboring groups.

  • Strategic Alliances: Formed key friendships and married his oldest son to the daughter of a neighboring khan (king).

  • Focus on Power: Intensely focused on building power, sometimes appointing talented non-family members over family members.

  • Ruthlessness: Known for brutal actions, such as killing his own stepbrother.

  • Personal Loyalty: Considered personal loyalty the optimal way to govern his growing kingdom.

  • Election as Khan: In 1206, Temujin gathered Mongol chieftains at a meeting called a kuriltai, where he was elected khan of the Mongolian Kingdom.

  • Name Change: Took the name Genghis Khan, meaning "ruler of all."

The Beginning of Conquest

  • Attack on Jin Empire (1210): Headed east with troops to attack the powerful Jin Empire, established by the Jurchens a century earlier, ruling Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and northern China.

  • Zhongdu: The Jin capital was Zhongdu (present-day Beijing).

  • Reputation as Terrifying Warrior: Earned this during the Jin campaign, brutally killing anyone who resisted.

  • Total Annihilation: Sometimes wiped out civilian populations of entire towns after defeating armies.

  • Psychological Warfare: Stories of Khan's brutality spread, inducing some leaders to surrender pre-emptively.

  • Conquests by 1219: Conquered the Central Asian Kara Khitai Empire and the Islamic Khwarazm Empire farther west.

  • Khanate Size by 1227: Genghis Khan's khanate (kingdom) stretched from the North China Sea to eastern Persia.

Genghis Khan at War

  • Skilled and Fearsome Soldiers: Empire was built on the prowess of his Mongolian soldiers.

  • Military Skills: Strong riders, proficient with the short bow, highly disciplined.

  • Efficient Command Structure: Khan developed a highly efficient command structure.

  • Communication: Created a messenger force for inter-unit communication; members rode for days without stopping, even sleeping on their horses.

  • Advanced Reconnaissance: Developed special units that mapped terrain to prepare for attacks and plan routes.

  • Military Strategies:

    • Surprise and Craft: Frequently deployed a smaller band of warriors who would feign defeat and retreat.

    • Outflanking: Pursuing enemy forces would then be met by larger Mongol forces, confusing and outflanking them.

  • Surrender or Annihilation: Sent small groups to enemy settlements to demand surrender, killing all aristocrats if refused.

  • Recruitment of Skilled Individuals: Craftworkers, miners, and literate individuals were recruited for the Mongol Empire.

  • Labor and Cannon Fodder: Others were used as laborers (e.g., carrying looted goods) or as front-line fodder in battles.

  • Incorporation of Conquered Technology: Quickly integrated weapons and technology from conquered peoples.

    • Siege Weapons: Exploited expertise of captured Chinese and Persian engineers to produce improved siege weapons (e.g., portable towers, catapults).

  • "Pony Express": Created a system similar to a pony express to maintain contact across the empire, but riders carried oral messages instead of written letters.

Genghis Khan at Peace

  • Pax Mongolica: The period of Eurasian history between the 13^{th} and 14^{th} centuries is often termed the Pax Mongolica (Mongolian peace).

  • Capital at Karakorum: Established the capital of his empire at Karakorum, near the center of modern Mongolia.

  • Consultation with Experts: Consulted with scholars and engineers from Chinese and Islamic traditions for city construction and government establishment.

  • Infrastructure: May have been responsible for more new bridges than any other ruler in history.

  • Liberal Social Policies: Instituted remarkably liberal social policies for the era.

    • Religious Tolerance: Established a policy of religious tolerance throughout the empire, which was highly unusual in the 13^{th} century.

  • Silk Roads Revival: Freed from warfare, his soldiers protected the Silk Roads, making them safe for trade and ushering in the third golden age of the Silk Roads.

  • New Trade Channels: Established new trade channels connecting Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe.

  • Economic Benefit: Survivors of Mongol conquests benefited from the reinvigoration of trade routes that had been underutilized since the Roman and Han Empires.

  • Unified Writing System Attempt: Directed a scribe captured in 1204 to adapt the Uyghur alphabet for Mongol, though the effort to establish one system empire-wide failed, it is still used in Mongolia today.

Mongolian Empire Expands

  • Three of Genghis Khan's grandsons established their own khanates, further expanding the empire into Asia and Europe.

  • Each conquest absorbed new people into the empire's economy and exchange networks.

Batu and the Golden Horde

  • Invasion of Russia (1236): Batu, son of Khan's oldest son, led a Mongolian army of 100,000 soldiers into Russia.

  • Russia's State: Russia was a loose network of city-states and principalities at the time.

  • Golden Horde: Batu's army became known as the Golden Horde, conquering small Russian kingdoms and demanding tributes.

  • Destruction of Kiev (1240): The capital city of Kiev was looted and destroyed.

  • Westward Push: The Golden Horde continued westward.

  • European Reaction: Initial European sympathy (based on religious toleration and trade promotion) evaporated after the Golden Horde conquered Christian Russia.

  • Military Victories (1241):

    • Defeated Polish, German, and French knights under King Henry of Silesia.

    • Defeated a force of Hungarian knights.

  • Intervention: Batu aimed for Italy and Austria, but attacks were called off due to the death of Ogodei Khan (Great Khan's successor) in Karakorum.

  • Loss of Interest: By the time Batu returned to Europe, he had seemingly lost interest in conquering Western Europe.

  • Rule in Russia:

    • Ruled northern Russia indirectly, working through existing Russian rulers who paid regular tributes.

    • This indirect rule was preferred by Mongols who did not want to live in the forests.

  • Rise of Moscow: Rulers of Moscow began collecting additional tributes, using them to develop an army and build an anti-Mongol coalition among Russian city-states.

  • Battle of Kulikovo (1380): Moscow's coalition defeated the Golden Horde.

  • Decline of Mongol Influence: After Kulikovo, Mongol influence declined.

  • Russian Victory: By the mid-16^{th} century, Russia had defeated all descendant khans of the Mongols, except the Crimean Tatars, who were defeated in the late 18^{th} century.

Long-Term Impact on Russia

  • Devastation: Suffered widespread devastation and death from Mongol attacks.

  • Recovery and Centralization: Invasions prompted Russian princes to improve military organization and accept centralized leadership.

  • Cultural Isolation and Development: Three centuries of Mongol rule severed Russia's ties with much of Western Europe, leading to a more distinctly Russian culture.

  • Foundation for Modern State: Resistance to the Mongols laid the foundation for the modern Russian state.

Hulegu and the Islamic Heartlands (Il-khanate)

  • Southwest Command: Hulegu, another grandson of Genghis Khan, led the western armies.

  • Conquest of Abbasid Territories (1258): Led Mongols into Abbasid lands, destroying Baghdad and killing the caliph and perhaps 200,000 residents.

  • Westward Push: Continued to push west, threatening more of the Middle East.

  • Defeat (1260): Defeated by a temporary alliance between Muslim Mamluks (under Baibars) and Christian Crusaders in Palestine. Both viewed Mongols as a severe threat.

  • Il-khanate Kingdom: Hulegu's kingdom, called the Il-khanate, stretched from Byzantium to the Oxus River (now Amu Darya).

  • Governance: Mongols ruled, but Persians served as ministers and officials to maximize tax collection.

  • Religious Shift:

    • Initially tolerated all religions in Persia.

    • Hulegu and most Il-khanate Mongols converted to Islam.

    • After conversion, Mongols supported massacres of Jews and Christians.

Kublai Khan and the Yuan Dynasty

  • Eastern Empire: Kublai Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, focused on China, then ruled by the Song Dynasty.

  • Challenging Conquest: China was a formidable opponent; Kublai's armies campaigned from 1235 to 1271 to conquer it.

  • Great Khan Title: Assumed the title of Great Khan in 1260.

  • Defeat of Chinese: Finally defeated the Chinese in 1271.

  • Establishment of Yuan Dynasty: Adhered closer to Chinese tradition than Mongolian practices, establishing the Yuan Dynasty.

  • Capital at Dadu: Rebuilt the capital at Zhongdu (destroyed by Mongols in 1215) and renamed it Dadu.

  • Skilled Governance: Kublai Khan proved skilled at governing a large, diverse territory.

  • Religious Tolerance: Like his grandfather, instituted a policy of religious tolerance, which garnered loyalty from previously oppressed groups like Buddhists and Daoists (out of favor in China) and was also tolerant towards Muslims, Jews, and Christians.

  • Prosperity: Reforms and protection by Mongolian armies brought initial prosperity to China through cultural exchanges and improved trade with other countries, including European ones.

Mongol Women During the Yuan Dynasty

  • Independent Lives: Mongol women generally led more independent lives than women in other contemporary societies.

  • Roles: Tended flocks of sheep and goats, raised children, and provided meals.

  • Equality: Rode horses like Mongol men and wore similar leather trousers.

  • Rights: Could remarry after being widowed and could initiate divorces.

Mongols Lose Power

  • Alienation of Chinese: Despite adopting Chinese customs, Mongolian leaders alienated many Chinese.

    • Government Appointments: Hired foreigners instead of native-born Chinese.

    • Scholar-Gentry Discontent: Promoted Buddhists and Daoists and dismantled the civil service exam system, distressing the Confucian Chinese scholar-gentry class.

    • Separation: Mongols remained separate from the Chinese, prohibiting non-Mongols from speaking Mongolian.

  • Failed Expansion: Like Batu in the west, Yuan Dynasty rulers failed to expand beyond China.

    • Invasions (starting 1274): Tried and failed to conquer Japan, Indochina, Burma, and the island of Java.

    • Loss of Fear: These defeats suggested to the disenchanted Chinese population that the Mongols were no longer as fearsome.

  • Revolt and Fall of Yuan Dynasty:

    • White Lotus Society: In the 1350s, this secret society began organizing to end the Yuan Dynasty.

    • Zhu Yuanzhang: In 1368, a Buddhist monk from a poor peasant family, led a revolt that overthrew the Yuan Dynasty.

    • Ming Dynasty: Zhu Yuanzhang founded the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).

  • General Decline: Mongol defeat in China paralleled a general decline in their power elsewhere.

    • Golden Horde: Lost territory by approximately 1369.

    • Central Asia: Conquered by Tamerlane (Timur the Lame) around the same time.

The Long-Term Impact of the Mongolian Invasions

  • Conquest Scale: Conquered a larger area than the Romans, holding the record for the largest continuous land empire in history. Their bloody reputation was often well-earned.

  • Revitalization of Trade (Pax Mongolica): During the Pax Mongolica (c. 1250-c. 1350), Mongols revitalized interregional trade between Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe by building and maintaining a system of roads and guarding trade routes.

  • Interregional Cultural Exchange:

    • Islamic scientific knowledge reached China.

    • Paper from China was crucial for the communication revolution powered by the Gutenberg printing press.

    • Greco-Islamic medical knowledge and the Arabic numbering system were transferred to Western Europe.

  • Disease Transmission: Mongol conquests transmitted fleas carrying the bubonic plague (Black Death) from southern China to Central Asia, and then to Southeast Asia and Europe, following trade and military routes.

  • Centralized Power: Mongols successfully ruled due to their understanding of centralized power, which was often adopted or copied by occupied civilizations after Mongol decline. They devised and used a single international law for all their conquered territories.

  • Military Innovations and End of Feudal Warfare:

    • Mongol fighting techniques led to the end of Western Europe's use of heavily armored knights, who could not counter Mongol speed and surprise.

    • The era of the walled city in Europe ended as walls proved ineffective against Mongol siege technology.

    • The cannon is considered by some to be a Mongol invention, combining Chinese gunpowder, Muslim flamethrowers, and European bell-casting techniques.

Key Terms by Theme

  • GOVERNMENT: Northern China and Central Asia

    • Mongols

    • khan

    • kuriltai

    • Genghis Khan

    • khanates

    • Pax Mongolica

  • GOVERNMENT: Islamic Heartlands

    • Hulegu

    • Il-khanate

  • GOVERNMENT: Russia and Western Europe

    • Batu

    • Golden Horde

    • Moscow

  • GOVERNMENT: China

    • Kublai Khan

    • Yuan Dynasty

    • Zhu Yuanzhang

    • Ming Dynasty

  • ENVIRONMENT: Asia

    • Gobi Desert

  • TECHNOLOGY: Warfare

    • siege weapons

    • cannon

  • CULTURE: Writing

    • Uyghur alphabet

  • SOCIETY: Revolt

    • White Lotus Society

  • SOCIETY: Disease

    • bubonic plague