Psychology Chapter 6 Lecture Slides PDF

Chapter 6: Learning

Part 1: 6.1 & 6.2

Innate Responses

• Reflexes

  • Innate, automatic motor responses to stimuli.

  • Involve the spinal cord and medulla.

  • Simpler than instincts; involve specific body parts/systems.

  • Examples: Knee-jerk reaction, pupils changing size.

• Instincts

  • Innate behaviors triggered by a range of environmental situations.

  • Involve complex patterns of movement in organisms.

  • Examples: Migration of birds.

What is Learning?

• Learning is relatively permanent and results from experience.

• Gains or changes in:

  • Knowledge

  • Skills

  • Behaviors

• Involves a complex interaction of conscious and unconscious processes.

Associative Learning

• Learning that connects certain stimuli or events occurring together in the environment.

• Central to three basic learning processes:

  • Classical Conditioning

  • Operant Conditioning

  • Observational Learning

Big Names in Each Learning Process

• Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov

• Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner

• Observational Learning: Albert Bandura

Learning Processes

• Classical Conditioning:

  • Pavlovian; associating stimuli that frequently occur together.

• Operant Conditioning:

  • Behaviors are associated with consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

  • Positive Consequence: Presented (increased likelihood of behavior).

  • Negative Consequence: Removed (decreased likelihood of behavior).

• Observational Learning:

  • Learning without direct experience; can learn by watching, reading, etc.

Ivan Pavlov

• Russian physiologist; Nobel Prize in 1904 for the physiology of digestion.

• Noticed increased salivation in dogs in response to food.

• Eventually conditioned dogs to salivate in response to stimuli unrelated to food, such as the sound of a bell (Classical Conditioning).

Classical Conditioning Terms

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): Stimulus not learned to respond to (e.g., tone).

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Known stimulus (e.g., meat powder).

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): Automatic response to UCS (e.g., salivation).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Learned stimulus (e.g., tone).

• Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation).

• Acquisition: Learning to connect NS and UCS.

Example of Classical Conditioning

• Clip from "The Office" where Jim trains Dwight using classical conditioning.

• Process: Jim pairs a dinging sound with presenting an Altoid; eventually, Dwight expects an Altoid from just the sound.

Applying Your Classical Conditioning Knowledge

• Questions:

  • What was the neutral stimulus (NS)?

  • What was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

  • What was the unconditioned response (UCR)?

  • What was the conditioned stimulus (CS)?

  • What was the conditioned response (CR)?

Aversive Conditioning

• Conditioning to avoid certain stimuli (e.g., food poisoning).

• Reminds individuals of something harmful to prevent future occurrences.

• Has evolutionary benefits and can discourage bad habits (e.g., using tin foil to prevent pets from jumping).

More Classical Conditioning Terms

• Stimulus Discrimination: No CR to similar stimuli; different responses to similar stimuli.

• Stimulus Generalization: CR to similar stimuli; responds to similar stimulus.

• Habituation: Adjustment to stimuli; stop responding to constant stimuli.

Behaviorism: John B. Watson

• Founder of Behaviorism.

• Focused on observable behavior rather than internal processes.

• Influenced by Pavlov; extended principles to humans.

• Famous experiment: “Little Albert” demonstrating conditioned fear.

Behaviorism: The Story of Little Albert

• Watson conditioned a 9-month-old to develop a fear of a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise.

• Demonstrated stimulus generalization (fear of other furry objects).

• The experiment is considered unethical today.

Real-Life Uses of Conditioning

• Advertising: Creates positive feelings through associations (e.g., using heartwarming events in commercials).

• Celebrity Endorsements: Brands distance themselves from scandals due to negative associations.

General Processes: Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: Learning a new CR to CS; strength varies over time.

• Extinction: CR diminishes when UCS no longer follows CS.

General Learning Process

• Spontaneous Recovery: Return of CR after extinction; indicates retention of learning.

Scenario Analysis

• Scenario Example: Fear developed from a barking dog leads to fear of a neighbor's house.

  • NS: Neighbor's house

  • UCS: Barking

  • UCR: Fear

  • CS: Neighbor's house

  • CR: Fear

Chapter 6 Part 2: Sections 6.3 & 6.4

Operant Conditioning

• B.F. Skinner: Behavior influenced by consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

• Reinforcement and punishment outcomes can be positive or negative.

Key Terms in Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement: Increases likelihood of behavior.

• Punishment: Decreases likelihood of behavior.

• Positive (+): Adding something desirable.

• Negative (-): Removing something undesirable.

Combining Key Terms

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus; encourages behavior (e.g., praise, paychecks).

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus to encourage behavior (e.g., car stops beeping when seatbelt is worn).

• Positive Punishment: Adding an undesirable stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., scolding).

• Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., taking away privileges).

Shaping in Operant Conditioning

• Rewarding successive approximations of target behavior.

• Breaks complex behaviors into achievable steps.

• Reinforcement strategies involve gradual steps towards desired behavior.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcers: Innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water).

• Secondary Reinforcers: Have value only when linked to primary reinforcers (e.g., money, praise).

• Token Economies: Utilize secondary reinforcers for behavior modification.

Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous Reinforcement: Reward for every instance of behavior; quickest to teach.

• Partial Reinforcement: Reward on a less frequent basis, leading to persistence.

Key Terms for Reinforcement Schedules

• Interval: Time-based schedule

• Ratio: Number-based schedule

• Fixed: Constant schedule

• Variable: Changing schedule

Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules

• Fixed Interval: Rewards given after fixed time (e.g., biweekly paychecks).

• Variable Interval: Rewards after varying times (e.g., surprise bonuses).

• Fixed Ratio: Rewards after fixed number of behaviors (e.g., per project completed).

• Variable Ratio: Rewards after varying number of behaviors (e.g., gambling rewards).

Extinction

• Behavior fades after reinforcement stops.

• The variable ratio schedule takes longest to extinguish; fixed interval is the fastest.

Observational Learning (Modeling)

• Albert Bandura: Focused on children and observational learning.

• Emphasized learning by watching and imitating others.

Types of Models

• Live Model: Demonstrates behavior in person.

• Verbal Model: Describes behavior without demonstration.

• Symbolic Model: Demonstrates behavior through media (e.g., TV shows).

Steps in Observational Learning

1. Attention: Watch and focus on behavior.

2. Retention: Remember the observed behavior.

3. Reproduction: Repeat the behavior.

4. Motivation: Desire to imitate the behavior, often influenced by reinforcement.

Bobo Doll Experiment

• Children observed adults acting aggressively towards a Bobo doll.

• Reinforced (praised) children imitated aggressive behavior.

• Punished children refrained from imitating aggression.

Implications of Bobo Doll Experiment

• Learning can lead to prosocial or antisocial behavior.

• Prosocial Models: Promote positive behaviors.

• Antisocial Models: Demonstrate negative behaviors.

Differences in Learning

• Classical Conditioning: React to stimuli based on concurrent stimuli.

• Operant Conditioning: Repeat behaviors followed by reinforcement/punishment.

• Observational Learning: Learn by observing models and their outcomes.